^ 

^  ^ 

"V^.-' 


^  \r  1^ 


> 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


2.2 


IL25  III  1.4 


■  20 

m 

11.6 


Hiotographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


^ 


\ 


\ 


c\ 


23  WIST  MAIK    TRIIT 

WHSTIR,N.Y.  l4St9 

(71«)t72-4S03 


'^ 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHIVi/ICIVIH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Instituta  for  Historical  IMicroraproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  da  microraproductions  historiquas 


Tachnical  and  Bibliographic  Notaa/Notaa  tachniquaa  at  bibliograpliiquaa 


Tha 
tot 


Tha  Instituta  has  attamptad  to  obtain  tha  baat 
original  copy  availabia  for  filming.  Faaturas  of  this 
copy  which  may  ba  bibliographicaily  uniqua, 
which  may  altar  any  of  tha  imagaa  in  tha 
raproduction,  or  which  may  significantly  changa 
tha  usual  mathod  of  filming,  ara  chackad  bolow. 


□    Colourad  covars/ 
Couvartura  da  coulaur 

□   Covars  damagad/ 
Couvartura  andommagia 

□   Covars  rastorad  and/or  laminatad/ 
Couvartura  rastaurte  at/ou  palliculAa 

□    Covar  titia  miasing/ 
La  titra  da  couvartura  manqua 


I — I   Colourad  mapa/ 


D 


Cartaa  giographiquaa  m*  coulaur 


Colourad  ink  (i.a.  othar  than  blua  or  black)/ 
Encra  da  coulaur  (i.a.  autra  qua  blaua  ou  noira) 


r~~|   Colourad  plataa  and/or  illustrations/ 


D 

D 


D 


El 


Planchaa  at/ou  illustrations  an  coulaur 


Bound  with  othar  matarial/ 
Rail*  avac  d'autraa  documants 


Tight  binding  may  cauaa  shadows  or  distortion 
along  intarior  margin/ 

La  re  liura  sarria  paut  cauaar  da  I'ombra  ou  da  la 
diatoraion  !•  long  da  ia  marga  intiriaura 

Blank  laavas  addad  during  rastoration  may 
appaar  within  tha  taxt.  Whanavar  poaaibia,  thaaa 
hava  baan  omittad  from  filming/ 
II  sa  paut  qua  cartainaa  pagaa  blanchaa  ajoutiaa 
lors  d'una  raatauration  apparaiaaant  dana  la  taxta. 
mala,  lorsqua  cala  Atait  possibia.  caa  pagaa  n'ont 
pas  «t4  filmAaa. 

Additional  commants:/ 
Commantairaa  supplimantairaa: 

PAGINATION  AS  FOLLOWS:     viil,   [5]-148  p. 


L'institut  a  microfilmi  la  maillaur  axamplaira 
qu'il  lui  a  ttt  possibia  da  sa  procurar.  Las  d*tails 
da  cat  axamplaira  qui  sont  paut-Atra  uniquas  du 
point  da  vua  bibliographiqua.  qui  pauvant  modifier 
una  imaga  raproduita.  ou  qui  pauvant  exiger  une 
modification  dana  la  mithoda  normala  de  filmaga 
sont  indiqu4s  ci-dassous. 


|~~1   Colourad  pagaa/ 


Pagaa  da  coulaur 

Pagaa  damagad/ 
Pagaa  andommagias 

Pagaa  raatorad  and/oi 

Pagaa  raataurtes  at/ou  paliiculias 

Pagaa  discoloured,  stained  or  foxei 
Pages  dteolorias.  tachatiea  ou  piquAas 


[~~|   Pagaa  damagad/ 

r~l   Pagaa  raatorad  and/or  laminated/ 

f^^ Pagaa  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 


Tha 
poa 
oft 
film 


Ori| 

bag 

tha 

aior 

othi 

first 

sion 

or  11 


□   Pagaa  detached/ 
Pagaa  ditachAas 

r~T^howthrough/ 
\j^   Tranaparanca 

r~1   Quality  of  print  variaa/ 


Qualiti  inAgala  de  I'impression 

Ineludas  supplamantary  matarial/ 
Comprend  du  material  supplAmantaira 


Tha 

ahal 
TIN 
whi 

Mai 
diff( 
anti 
bag 
righ 
raqi 
mat 


D 


Only  adition  available/ 
Sauia  Mition  disponibia 


r~7r  Pagaa  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  arrata 
LlJ  slips,  tissues,  ate,  hava  baan  refilmed  to 
anaura  the  bast  possibia  image/ 
Lea  pagaa  totalement  ou  partiallement 
obacurcias  par  un  fauillat  d'errata,  una  polurdt, 
ate  ont  it*  filmiea  i  nouveau  da  faqcn  A 
obtanir  la  maiilaura  imaga  possibia. 


This  itam  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  chackad  below/ 

Ca  document  est  filmi  au  taux  da  reduction  indiqu*  ei-daaaoua. 

10X  14X  18X  22X 


28X 


30X 


12X 


16X 


2DX 


MX 


28X 


32X 


Th«  copy  filmed  h«r«  has  b««n  r«produc«d  thanks 
to  tha  ganarosity  of: 

Mttropolitan  Toronto  Library 
Littraturt  tSapartiiMnt 

Tha  imagas  appaaring  hara  a^r*  tha  bast  quality 
possibia  considaring  tha  condition  and  iaglbility 
of  tha  original  copy  and  in  kaaping  with  tha 
filming  contract  spncif icatlo^s. 


Original  copies  in  printad  papar  covars  ara  fllmad 
beginning  with  tha  front  covar  and  ending  on 
tha  last  page  with  a  printad  or  illustrated  Imprea- 
sion,  or  thii  back  cover  when  eppropriata.  All 
other  original  copiae  are  filmed  beginning  on  the 
first  pege  with  e  printed  or  illustrated  impree- 
slon,  and  ending  on  the  iaat  page  with  a  printad 
or  iliuatratad  impression. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  eech  microfiche 
shall  contain  tha  symbol  -^  (meaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  tha  symbol  Y  'meaning  "END"), 
whichever  appilaa. 


L'axemplaira  fiimA  fut  reproduit  grice  A  la 
gAnArositA  da: 

Metropolitan  Toronto  Library 
Litaratura  Dapartmant 

Les  imagas  suivantas  ont  AtA  raproduites  avac  la 
plus  grand  soin,  compta  tanu  da  la  condition  at 
da  ie  nettet*  do  l'axemplaira  film*,  at  9n 
conformiti  avac  las  conditions  du  contrat  da 
fiimege. 

Les  exemplalras  originaux  dont  la  couvartura  •n 
papier  est  imprimAe  sent  fiimto  en  commenpant 
par  ie  premier  plat  at  an  tarminent  soit  par  la 
darnlAre  page  qui  comporta  una  amprainte 
d'imprassion  ou  d'illustration.  soit  par  la  second 
plat,  salon  la  cea.  Tous  las  autres  axempleires 
originaux  sent  filmis  mt  commenpant  par  la 
pramlAre  page  qui  comporta  une  amprainte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration  at  an  tarminent  par 
la  darnlAre  page  qui  comporta  une  telle 
empreinte. 

Un  dee  symboles  solvents  apparaftra  sur  la 
darnlAre  imege  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  Ie 
cas:  la  symbols  ^-^  signifia  "A  SUIVRE",  la 
symbola  ▼  signifie  "FIN". 


Meps,  plates,  charts,  etc.,  mey  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratioa.  Those  too  ierge  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  exposure  ara  filmed 
beginning  In  the  upper  left  hend  corner,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  framea  as 
required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


Les  cartas,  planches,  tableaux,  ate.  pauvent  Atra 
fllmAs  A  das  taux  da  rAduction  diff Arants. 
Lorsqua  ie  document  est  trop  grand  pour  Atre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  clichA.  il  est  filmA  A  partir 
da  I'angia  supArleur  geuche,  de  gauche  A  droite. 
at  de  haut  an  bas,  an  prenant  la  nombre 
d'imagas  nAcessaire.  Las  diagrammas  suivants 
iiiuatrant  la  mAthoda. 


1 

2 

3 

32X 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

■> 


,-'N 


J 


TREVELYAN  PRIZE  ESSAY. 


/ 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY: 


AN 


INVESTIGATION  OF  THE  SOUNDS  OF  THE  VOICE, 


AND  THIIR 


ALPHABETIC  NOTATION; 


THE   MECHANISM    OE   SPEECH, 


AKD   ITS    BKAHIMQ  UPON 


ETYMOLOGY. 


m 
S.  S.  HALDEMAN,  A.M., 

-      ,  ,       PBOrE880R  IN   DILAWABB   COLLSaB; 

■mUB  or  TBI  AHiucAif  rRiUMOFBicAt  Boonn;  or  the  academy  or  natvbal  sciences  or  pniLADELrau;  or  Tni  abibicA!!  okieiital  soiiitt; 

or  TBI  mrEUAL  economic  sociitt  orst.  rETn$Bi;RdH;  rELLoworTHS  amebicax  acadkmt  or  a:its  axd  sciencu;  bonorabt  mehbeb 

or  THB  bistobical  socibtt  or  wiscoNsin;  coRBE«ro»DEHT  or  THE  natural  history  society  or  NVBEHDEBo;  or  the 

BOSTON    SOCIETY    Or  NATURAL    HISTORY;    or  THE  NEW  YORK    HIBTOBICAL    SOCIETY;    Or  THE    HUTOBICAL 
800IBTY  or  rENNSYLTANIA ;   Or  THE  MABYLAND  HI8T0BICAL  SOCIETY;    AND  or  TBB 
AMERICAN  BTBNOLOOIOAL  SOCIETY. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  &  CO. 

LONDON:  TRUBNER  &  CO PARIS:  BENJAMIN  DUPRAT. 

BERLIN:  FERD.  DUMMLER. 
1860. 


V 


!'»>""»"' 


»•    ^.a 


I  /. 


i,  i.    J*    ^ 


Jl/^,S-M- 


Pi 


'V  i!' 


li^i  i 


i  - ..  I '' 


vt    ^   A 


mUsi  Xi 


:fK:lPi^t>i 


PREFATORY. 


Altrouoii  the  Essay  following  owes  its  form  to  the  prizes  offered  by  Sir  Walter  C.  Trcvelyan,  A.M., 
tlie  material  has  been  accumulating  during  a  number  of  years,  in  connection  with  Ethnology,  Kpccch  being 
an  important  characteristic  of  man.  But  in  taking  cognisance  of  speech  as  it  occurs  in  nature,  it  is  found 
very  different  from  its  representation  in  books,  as  we  learn  when  German,  French,  and  English  are  really 
compared.  It  was  considered  necessary  to  record  such  vocal  phenomena  as  we  had  observed,  and  out  of 
this  a  notation  has  arisen  which  those  whose  knowledge  of  languages  is  based  on  books  may  regard  as  too 
minute,  whilst  those  who  are  familiar  with  languages  we  have  heard  but  casually,  will  prntwbly  discover  that 
our  chief  error  has  been  a  want  of  nice  discriminating  powers.  But  whilst  it  is  the  duty  of  the  explorer  to 
record  the  minutest  phases  in  a  given  language,  the  natives  themselves  will  determine  how  far  these 
distinctions  are  to  be  expanded  or  curtailed  when  represented  in  an  alphalnst. 

Our  "Latin  Pronunciation"  grrv,  out  of  the  question  of  alphabetic  notation,  and  in  that  we  determined 
that  if  the  Roman  Alphabet  is  used  as  u  oasis,  the  letters  must  have  their  Latin  power;  and  this  is  the  view 
of  others,  as  will  appear  in  the  course  of  our  Essay.  Unfortunately,  there  are  many  who  admit  the  justice 
of  this,  as  long  as  they  suppose  that  Latin  was  pronounced  as  they  pronounce  it,  who  change  their  view 
when  there  are  discrepancies,  and  are  ready  to  pull  down  the  structure  n  Latin  etymology  and  prosody  to 
their  own  barbarian  level.  «       ' 

When  the  ancient  testimony  on  the  power  of  a  letter  is  undisputed,  an  argument  is  used  which  satisftes 
most  literary  people,  namely,  that  the  modern  corruptions  may  have  existed  in  ancient  times.  But  whilst  we 
grant  the  justice  of  this  supposition  (§  131,)  we  cannot  allow  ourselves  to  depart  from  the  letter  of  the 
ancient  grammarians  to  theorise  on  unwritten  dialects  for  the  purpose  of  vitiating  the  normal  form.  The 
Tuscan  haaa  for  casa  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  power  of  cay  in  the  written  dialect,  and  he  who  said 
bufalo  for  bubalcs,  was  using  /  where  another  used  b ;  he  was  not  pronouncing  6  as  f,  but  using  an 
unwritten  form,  like  a  Roman  saying  piano  for  planus,  or  an  Englishman  pronouncing  the  same  planus  in 
the  two  modes  piano  and  plain. 

In  January  and  February,  1854,  there  were  four  Alphabetic  Conferences  held  in  London  at  the  house  of 
Chev.  Bunsen,  in  which  fifteen  scholars  and  scientists  participated,  but  they  arrived  at  no  common  conclu- 
sion. There  was  no  difference  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  power  of  nearly  all  of  the  consonant  letters  of  the 
Roman  alphabet ;  yet  we  have  not  followed  them  in  regard  to  k,  v,  w,  y,  z,  in  which  they  sacrifice  and  cor- 
rupt a  fifth  of  the  Latin  alphabet. 

(V) 


vl 


PREFATORY. 


The  new  Lawa  of  the  ifechnniHtn  of  Speech,  and  the  PhyHioIogy  and  Physlojynomy  of  Words,  m 
cxhil»ito«l  here,  wc  l»elicvc  to  »mj  tlie  true  haHin  of  etymolojry,  and  they  will  tw  taken  up  and  expanded  here- 
after into  an  cdiieationa!  uericii  on  tlie  PiiiloHopliy  of  Etymology,  Affixes  of  the  English  Language,  Ac.  At 
preHciit  there  in  no  lietter  proof  of  the  low  condition  of  lingnifitic  education  amongst  ns,  than  the  use  of 
Deacon  (more  correctly  Diacon)  Trench's  books  in  our  schools  and  colleges,  where  they  hare  been  introduced 
l»y  illiterate  admirers.  These  books  are  equally  popular  in  England,  notwithstanding  the  more  accurate  views 
of  scholars  like  Kills,  Garnett,*  Guest,  Key,  Latham, f  Wedgwood,  &c. 

Although  we  have  furnished  to  the  phonetic  periodicals  several  articles  on  etymology  as  a  matter  of 
speech  rather  than  of  spelling,  we  do  not  belong  to  the  "reforming"  class,  and  we  are  not  aware  that  we 
have  hitherto  expressed  an  opinion  of  phonotypic  English.  Intent  on  a  literary,  rather  than  a  philologic 
view  of  the  subject,  Trench  and  his  imitators  have  overlooked  what  we  consider  the  strongest  argument 
against  it — though  not  a  valid  one.  ' 

The  authors  animadverted  upon  have  been  those  whose  books  were  at  hand,  although  many  others 
contain  similar  views,  and  nothing  farther  has  been  intended  than  to  represent  each  author  in  quotation,  as  he 
has  chosen  to  represent  himself.  The  supposed  errors  of  those  who  have  taken  some  pains  to  be  accurate, 
have  not  l)eon  alluded  to.  Thus  a  careful  author  might,  from  a  knowledge  of  several  European  languages, 
limit  the  number  of  pos3il)le  consonants  to  twenty  or  thirty,  and  conclude  that  a  sard  cannot  follow  a  sonant 
consonant  in  the  same  syllabic,  although  contradicted  (§  682)  by  the  Hungarian  words  for  one  tad /our. 

The  circumstances  under  which  the  following  pages  were  printed,  have  caused  defects  in  the  typography 
which  arc  quite  independent  of  the  notation.  The  several  sets  of  type  used  did  not  combine  well, — some  were 
wanting  which  are  sufficiently"  accessible  in  large  offices,  and  the  compositors,  unaccustomed  to  technical 
matter,  and  unacquainted  with  foreign  alphabets,  had  much  difficulty  in  understanding  the  manuscript.  Me- 
chanical corrections  were  difficult  to  make,  and  often  resulted  in  typographic  inaccuracies,  so  that  it  was 
thought  best  to  be  satisfied  with  an  approximate  regularity,  rather  than  risk  the  dropping  out  of  an  accen- 
tual,  or  the  turning  of  a  letter  which  had  been  inverted  intentionally. 


*  We  regret  that  so  great »  philologist  should  have  allowed  his  prtyudloes  to  make  him  unfair  in  his  review  of  Webster 
and  Riohardaon,  in  which  he  condemns  the  errors  of  the  former,  and  palliates  the  greater  errors  of  the  latter.  Webster  Tas 
the  first  lexicographer  of  English  who  placed  definition  and  etymology  on  a  proper  basis;  Richardson  was  not  competent,  even 
to  follow,  in  either.  Webster  (apart  from  his  erroneous  semitism)  saw  the  value  of  oriental  etymologies,  and  he  thought 
Tooke  an  unsafe  guide.  Richardson  despised  oriental  etymologies,  and  adopted  Tooke's  errors— 4rat  seemingly  not  to  his  dis- 
oredit,  for  the  Quarterly  Reviewer,  so  free  from  "narrow-mindedness,"  and  of  such  "vast  erudition,  maseuline  energy  of 
diotiou,  and  scathing  sarcasm,"  says  that  Richardson's  defects  "are  not  so  much  chargeable  on  himself,  as  on  the  guide  whoso 
diets  ha  implioiily  follows."  t  We  quote  this,  and  the  last  sentence  of  1 820,  in  vindication  of  Webster,— preferring  fairness  to 
sarcasm. 

t  The  first  to  call  attention  to  the  affinity  between  French  o  in  oie  (J  213,)  and  English  w  in  now. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER     r. 

I  1,  General  statement  of  the  subject.    Necessity  for  universal  standards  of  comparison.    6-«,  Errors  of  (rram- 
marians.    10,  The  spelling  of  Shaicespeare  relinquished.    36-8,  Trench's  argument    4?i.  Ten  Paradoxes. 

CHAPTER     II. 

1  42,  The  Roman  alphabet  the  proper  basis  of  notation.    47-64,  Six  Rules  of  notation. 

CHAPTER     III. 

i  72,  Kinds  of  alphabets.    72-5,  Hieroglyphs.    78-82,  Philosophic  alphabet*.    87,  Cherokee  a  conventional  syl. 
labic  alphabet ;  probable  theory  of  its  formation. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

3  88,  The  Latin  alphabet.     93,  Vowels.    94,  Diphthongs.     95,  Nasal  T0*els.    118,  Double  consonants.    109, 
Hebrew  in  Latin  letters. 

CHAPTER     V. 

2  114,  The  Greek  alphabet    122,  Accent    126,  The  digamma.    129,  Greek  orthography  of  Latin  names. 

CHAPTER    VI. 

1  133-47,  The  Anglish  (Angloaaxon)  alphabet 

CHAPTER     VI L 
{  148,  Organs  of  the  Tolce.    152,  Organs  of  speech. 

CHAPTER    VIII. 

2  154,  The  Elements.    156,  Vowels  pure,  nasal,  whispered,  independent,  and  glottal.    157-8,  Consonants.    163, 

Coalescents.    168,  Dieresis.    172,  Syneresis.    174-85.  Consonant  characteristics.    186-89,  Nasality.    190, 
Possible  extent  of  consonant  variation.    199  note,  Notation  of  Sir  Wm.  Jones. 

CHAPTER     IX 
2  202-18,  Phases  of  words.    208,  Metathesis.    205,  Epenthesis.    i'07,  Cydesis.    208,  Eduction.    214,  Induction. 


CHAPTER     X. 


2  221,  Elision.    223,  fbur  and  Five  cognate  with  the  Latin  forms.    227,  Plummet  and  lead  cognates.    228, 
Absorption. 

(Vii) 


VIM 


CONTENTS. 


rilAI'TKR     XI. 

I  229.  Miititlinn  or  aimthp«ii>.  T.W,  rrrcPf««li>n.  2:i2,  RcrPMion.  23.1,  TraniPe«iinn.  2.14-ff,  (314.)  AntlUxii. 
2:i7,  (:»I2.)  MetttlliixiH.  2:»H-4:J.  AdlnitioH  (if  the  vowel*.  245.  Mark*  of  matation.  'iW-Mi,  Kxamploi  of 
inturiniitation.  257-8,  Vowola  oftun  unchanged.  259,  Vowel  rolatiou  irreguUr.  264-5,  t'ommutttion. 
26G-72,  roruiutation. 

ClIAPTERXII. 

{  273,  TranBmutation.  279-86,  Otosia.  287-9,  AHHimilation.  290-.3,  Disgimilatlon.  294-307,  Qlottosii.  3(M, 
caije  from  cavia.    312-14,  Motallaxig  and  Analluxiii  of  coniouanU. 

CHAPTER     XIII. 
I  315-38,  Etymologic  bearings,  with  examples. 

CHAPTER     XIV. 

I  339,  (1S6,)  Vowels.  350-1,  Stopt  vowels.  352-8,  Quantity,  or  relative  length.  359-68,  Notation  of  quantity. 
369,  Scheme  of  the  pure  vowels.  370-440,  The  pnria  vowels  in  detail.  444,  Scheme  of  intermntation. 
44.'i-8,  Independent  vowels. 

CHAPTER     XV. 

{  449,  Consonants.  451-63,  Labials  and  Labio-dentals.  464-8,  Lingui-dentals.  469-83,  Dentals.  484-6, 
Indistinctness.  487-90,  Arabic  linguols.  491-4.  Sanscrit  cerebrals.  49.5-513,  Sigmals.  514-24,  Palatals. 
525-4G,  Gutturals.  547-51,  Faucols  552,  Laryngals.  555-6,  559,  Spiritus  lenis.  560-2,  Hiatus.  664, 
Chinese  abrupt  consonants.  565-7,  Aspiration.  668,  Hamza.  570,  Arabic  and  Hebrew  ain.  671,  Sanscrit 
vi$arga.    573-4,  Laryngo-faucals.    577,  Scheme  of  the  consonants. 

CHAPTER     XVI. 

Examples.  |  590-609,  English.  610-13,  German.  614-22,  French.  624-8,  Cherokee.  629-32,  Wyandot. 
633,  Nadaco,orAnadahhas.  634,  Kansa.  635-8,  Ohippeway.  641-2,  Greek.  643,  Italian.  644-8,  Latin. 
649,  Orebo.  651-724,  The  numerals  from  one  to  ten,  written  from  dictation  in  seventy-five  languages  and 
dialects,  sixty  of  them  being  token  from  the  months  of  natives. 


Tui  following  corrections,  &o.,  may  be  made :  |  52, 1.  5,  transpose  ah  and  sk.  I  167,  note  c,  read  eonitrxteled. 
I  201, 1.  4,  for  cay  read  gay.  Heading  of  i  312  read  ({  237).  The  arrangement  in  {  577  was  published  by  us  in  the 
Linnaean  Record  of  Pennsylvania  College,  for  June,  1846.  {  649, 1.  4,  read  probably.  {  669',  for  t'  read  t'.  3  681*, 
omit  I,  leaving  its  mark  stand.  {  721,  put  Malay  in  parentheses.  The  heading  (fi)  of  i  405  has  been  turned  into  (<)) 
in  some  copies.  The  Hottentot  cluck  on  a  t  basis  (i  447)  is  the  only  one  we  have  heard  in  nature.  Page  402,  line  2, 
omit  or.    i  19,  1.  5,  for  e,  t,  read  e,  i.    k  724',  the  third  letter  is  *. 

\  668.  According  to  Smith,  in  Robinson's  Palestine,  vol.  3,  p.  90-1,  Boston,  U.  S.,  1841,  "llie  Hamzeh  is  in  no 
sense  a  breathing.  .  .  .  When  it  occurs  in  the  middle,  or  at  the  end  of  a  word,  the  voice  must  be  entirely  stopped 
before  it  can  be  pronounced."    This  valuable  Appendix  has  been  omitted  from  a  later  edition. 

\  639,  note.  According  to  Dr.  L.  Loewe,  (Diet  of  the  Circassian  Language,)  "the  pronunciation  is  so  difflcult, 
that  even  the  most  distinguished  linguists  find  it  hard  to  imitate  the  sound  of  a  syllable  as  uttered  by  the  mouth  of  the 
Addee-ghey  people."  Klaproth  says  it  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  in  the  world  to  pronounce,  no  alphabet  being  com- 
petent to  represent  it  accurately;  and  that  it  has  a  daoking  of  the  tongue,  and  several  throat  consonanta,  which  a 
European  cannot  reproduce. 


AN.\LYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY; 


a..  <in..L.^ii...i: 1  iL.  a — v.  ^  4L.  HI.:.*  m,.v  ik*:.  <« l»l,nl»«t:«.  VlA^.4;An 


ADDITIONAL    CORRECTIONS. 


{  IS,  1.  6,  phenomenon.  {  25,  !•  6.  ■ptrlllia.  {  121,  for  or  read  "(.  )  l!i5<  1- l^'t  fur 
would  read  could.  J  187, 1.  1,  put )  after  period.  {  171, 1.  0,  read  luok>.  {  26:i, 
1.  2,  read  raisin*,  jj  800,  1.  7,  read  CattrtSn.  {  808, 1.  6  of  note,  read  (p.  21)  and 
plaoe  tlie  aooent  of  "region."  after  e.  8  088,  the  a  in  the  table  wanti  the  anplrale 
mark.  Hl»,  1.  5,  first  word,  read  %bn.  i  01^19>  1-2,  read  dA,;  line  12,  for 'a  read 
«,.  J  084,  the  inlllal  of  the  word  for  brow  is  the  same  as  that  for  et/e.  In  the  word 
for  ihirt,  for  J  read  I.  {  001*,  for  7  read  '.  {  007',  the  outer  branch  of  inverted  b 
■hould  have  been  removed.  |  C78>,  for  r  read  r.  {  080V>,  invert  the  t.  |  GSils,  tlie 
nasal  mark  belongs  to  the  vowel,  i  084*,  third  form,  for  c  read  /.  {  *18&i,  for  *  read  f . 
{  087*,  the  first  vowel  has  an  acute  accent.  J  088,  read  Coptic'**,  and  in  the  note 
•*Memphitio.  {  088*,  read  ff,  and  in  the  note  ff  !■>  our  mr.  {  080*,  for  I  read  |t, 
and  Xt  '■>  tliB  lo^t  "ote*  I  ^^^>  <he  five  asterisks  should  be  ||.  {  007',  place"  over  i,. 
{  000>,  insert  initial  S.  g  702',  vSliS.  The  mark  of  *  belongs  to  v,  and  also  in  704^ 
and  707*.  |  704',  for  iiS  read  Sii.  Place  "  over  v.  J  705*,  plaoe  a  grave  aooent 
over  the  first  vowel.  {  700*.  the  second  letter  is  j.  {  718*,  after  I  insert  s.  S  714-10, 
the  k  is  for  o.    {  050*,  for  p  read  n. 

The  final  aspirate  in  |  702^  is  that  described  in  {  508.  It  is  not  indicated  in  all 
oases,  but  is  assigned  to  one  of  the  forms  ({  720*)  of  Chinese.  It  is  remarkable  that 
the  opposite  Chinese  phase  (}  504)  should  have  been  indicated  as  occurring  in  the 
word  for  seven  in  two  Freuob  dialects  ({  000^70)  taken  independently. 


The  PuBLisHERg  of  this  Volume  are  in  no  manner  responsible  for 
the  typographic  execution  of  these  pages,  the  sheets  liaving  been  fur- 
nished to  them  from  the  forms  as  prepared  for  the  "Transactions," 
of  which  they  form  a  part.  S.  S.  II. 


Chemistry. 

2. 


-vw-Maa    v«ta>t«V«l    UtttrtWO* 


-x 


'^v 


VIII 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER     XI. 

i  229,  Mutation  or  onathosis.    231,  rrocessinn.    232,  Recession.    233,  Transcession.    234-6,  (314,)  Anallaxis. 
'  237,  (312,)  MeUllttxiH.    238-43,  Amnities  of  the  vowels.    24.i.  Marks  of  motation.    246-,56,  Examples  of 
intermutation.     257-8,  Vowels  often  unchanged.     259,  Vowel  relations  irregular.     264-5,  Commutation. 
266-72,  Permutation. 


\ 


Addee-ghey  people."  KTSprotn  saynrs  one  or  tne  most  dittcolt  iil  the  world  to  pronounce,  no  alphabet  bemg  com- 
petent to  represent  it  accurately;  and  that  it  has  a  clacking  of  the  tongue,  aod  severe!  throat  consonants,  which  a 
Buropean  cannot  reproduce. 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY; 

%n  |nbes%tion  of  i\t  Sranbs  of  tjc  Mtt,  anb  IJtir  ^Ipjabetit  ftolation, 


BY  S.  S.  HALDEMAN. 


(From  the  Traniaotions  of  the  Amerioan  PhiloBophionl  Society,  Vol.  XI.) 


CHAPTER  I. 

CuMPARATiTE  Oraminar  cannot  acquire  a  scientific  shape  until  it  discardn  the  pedantic  fetters  of  orthography,  and  writes 
all  languages  according  to  one  system;  fur  things  of  a  kind  admit  of  a  just  comparison  only  when  compared  by  the  same 
standard.  In  this  respect,  philology  is  iu  its  infancy,  and  we  place  difficulties  where  none  are  to  be  found  in  nature. — Bapp, 
Grundrisz  der  Oramraatik  des  Indisch-europaiscben  Sprachstammes,  1855,  p.  viii. 

§  1.  The  present  tendency  of  science  is  to  adopt  standards  of  universal  application,  and 
it  is  usual  for  learned  societies  and  associations,  to  have  a  permanent  committee  of  research, 
consultation,  and  correspondence,  with  a  view  to  bring  about  a  uqiformity  of  weights,  mea- 
sures,  and  coinage. 

2.  The  advance  of  linguistic  science  demands  a  uniform  nomenclature  and  notation  for 
the  phases  of  speech,  so  that  the  same  syllable  may  be  written  in  the  same  manner, 
wherever  there  is  occasion  to  use  it,  just  as  every  known  plant  and  insect  is  recognised 
by  a  uniform  Latin  name  among  all  who  are  familiar  with  botany  and  entomology. 

3.  Although  the  want  of  a  uniform  mode  of  representing  languages  is  felt  as  an  urgent 
necessity,  they  have  not  been  provided  with  a  letter  for  each  sound;  whilst  chemistry, 
(which  is  not  studied  by  one  in  a  thousand,)  has  a  perfect  notation,  an  alphabet  of  dotted 
or  marked  letters,  to  represent  some  sixty  elements;  and,  as  it  were,  spell  all  their  ascer- 
tained combinations. 

4.  Berzdku  did  not  hose  his  symhdlii  on  his  native  Swedish,  but  upon  Latin,*  without 

even  looking  at  the  inconsistent  and  cumbersome  notation  which  his  predecessors  of  the 

last  century  had  used,  and  which  may  be  seen  in  their  books,  or  in  the  £ncyclopa>dia  Bri- 

tannica,  as  late  as  the  year  1798. 

*  "  Beneliua  has  properly  selected  them  from  LaUn  names,  as  being  known  to  all  civilized  nations." — Turner' $ 
Chemiatry. 

2. 


^ 


•«i»> 


6 


ANALYTIC  ORTUOGRAFUY. 


5.  Alphabets  of  hundreda  of  characters  have  been  cut  for  Arabic,  Sanscrit,  and  Greek;  * 
the  Greek  vowel  iota  requires  the  fifteen  types  i,  i,  i,  i,  f,  ?,  t,  ?,  ?,  ?,  ?,  ?,  i',  i,  i,  the  general  al- 
phabet proposed  by  S'ufiic',  (Schunjitsch  in  German  letters,)  requires  seventy-two  vowel 
modifications;  astronomers  and  mathematicians  have  a  sufficient  typography,  and  the  com- 
plicated hotation  of  modern  music  can  be  set  up  in  detached  types. 

6.  The  chemic  alphabet  came  from  the  hand  of  a  philosopher;  English  writing  has  been 
controlled  by  the  literary  and  superficial,  as  distinguished  from  the  scientific  public;  the 
alchemists  rather  than  the  chemists — astrologers  rather  than  astronomers — linguists  like 
Trench,  rather  than  philologists  like  Bapp,  who  "settle"  questions  in  spelling,  pronunci- 
ation, and  grammar,  according  to  English  analogies,  without  knowing  what  these  analogies 
are.  f 

6  a.  (hold  Brown  writes  a  ponderous  "  Grammar  of  English  Grammars,"  after  consult- 
ing about  four  hundred  authorities,  but  instead  of  producing  a  cyclopaedia  on  the  subject, 
the  work  is  worthless  for  deciding  questions  which  depend  upon  general  principles.  With 
him,  (and  probably  nine-tenths  of  his  four  hundred  grammarians,)  aioe  is  a  tripthong,  be- 
ginning with  a;  and  with  Trench,  (in  lectures,  and  therefore  clear  of  spelling,)  *^anl  and 
cniw?c<  were  originally  different  spellings  of  the  same  word,"  (as  "gad''  and  "jail,"  or 
"plough"  and  "plow"  are  at  present,)  but  he  does  not  tell  us  whether  the  "  same  word  " 
that  "ant"  spelt,  was  emmet,  or  the  reverse,  "emmet"  spelling  aw^.J 

Q  b.  A  college  student  asserts,  in  a  published  communication,  that  one  of  his  professors 

*'  "  Where  ligatures  and  abbreviations  abound  .  .  .  750  boxes  are  required  for  the  different  sorts  of  a  fount  of 
Greek  ...  It  must,  however,  be  observed,  that  almost  300  of  these  sorts  are  the  same,  and  have  no  other  dif- 
ference than  that  of  being  kerned  on  their  hind  side;  for  we  remember  to  have  seen  Greek  with  capitals  kerned 
on  both  sides." — Printers'  Grammar,  1797,  p.  242. 

f  Thh  Essay  owes  its  form  and  matter  to  the  following  circumstances.  In  the  year  1857,  Sir  Wr .  C.  Treveljan, 
A.  M.  (Oxford,)  of  Wallington,  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  offered  two  prizes  for  essays  on  a  Reform  in  the  Spelling  of 
the  English  Language,  to  contain,  among  other  features,  an  Analysis  of  the  System  of  Articulate  Sounds — an  Ex- 
position of  those  occurring  in  English — and  an  Alphabetic  Notation,  in  which  "as  few  new  types  as  possible  should 
be  admitted."  The  last  requisition  has,  in  a  few  cases,  resulted  in  a  double  notation,  one  of  which  represents  the 
author's  preference  in  a  new  form  of  type,  the  other  being  a  form  in  use,  but  not  approved.  The  investigation 
was  made  from  a  natural  history  point  of  view,  and  the  results  are  here  presented.  A  Report  is  yet  to  be  made 
to  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  on  the  Subject  of  an  Alphabetic  Notation  for  exotic 
Languages.  Suggestions  and  criticisms  are  solicited  towards  this  end,  to  be  addressed  to  the  author  at  Columbia, 
Pennsylvania. 

X  Similarly  Webster,  the  chief  of  English  lexicographers — «  nations  differ  in  the  orthography  of  some  initial 
sounds.  .  .  .  Thus  the  Spanish  has  Uamar  for  the  Latin  clamo."  This  is  a  difference  of  "orthography"  in  the 
same  sense  that  English  "knee"  differs  from  the  Saxon  "knee."  People  who  hold  such  views  must  consider 
tear  tear,  sow  tow,  b<no  bow,  toind  wind,  wound  wound,  as  identic,  because  they  do  not  "  differ  in  the  orthography;" 
whilst  convey  inveigh,  receipt  deceit,  noun  renown,  sprite  sprightly,  expatiate  spacious,  presistance  -ency,  oontittent 
resistant,  must  be  considered  as  wanting  identity. 


f 


ANALYTIC  ORTUOORAPHT. 


X 


Bays  pronun-si-ation,  another  pronun-shi-ation,  and  there  is  probably  no  orthoepist  who 
has  determined  the  theoretic  form  by  investigating  the  laws  of  8j)€€ch  which  govern  such 
words.  Richardson,  £ng.  Diet.  Prelim.  Essay,  §  II.  p.  17,  tries  to  split  a  simple  element 
{ng  in  »lny,)  in  citing  Gothic  "ga-g-gan"  Anglosaxon  "ga-n-gan"  to  go;  Regnier*  does  the 
same  for  the  German  past  participle  "ge-sun-gen,"  and  J.  E.  Worcester  also,  in  the  word 
"  haidin'gerite  "  for  hai'ding-erite. 

7.  In  Professor  Fowler's  English  Language,  (chiefly  Latham's  Book,)  and  under  the  head, 
"Combinations  not  in  the  Language,"  he  states,  that  English  has  <<but  few  rough-breath- 
ing or  true  aspirates  in  comparison  with  the  Qreek,  and  those  mostly  confined  to  compound 
words  like  off-hand,  with-hold,  knife-handle."  Such  combinations  as  th-h  and  f-h  are  not 
Greek,  nor  do  th-h  constitute  an  aspirate.  This  statement  is  probably  due  to  a  misunder- 
standing of  a  false  view  of  Greek  V^  (nnd  why  not  of  d,  X  also?)  confidently  given  in  Do- 
naldson's New  Cratylus.  The  uneducated  sometimes  assert,  that  there  are  but  few  vowels 
in  Arabic  and  Hebrew;  and  Professor  Fowler  seems  to  think  it  remarkable,  that  there 
are  syllables  "in  Choctaw  like  yvmmdk,  in  the  Welsh  like  yspryd.  .  .  .  Combinations 
like  these  are  altogether  undesirable."  This  is  a  very  roundabout,  but  strictly  literary 
way  of  saying  that  he  considers  the  English  syllables  hum  and  vs  objectionable,  since  but 
few  of  his  readers  could  know  the  pronunciation  of  the  words  quoted.  His  view  of  quan- 
tity, (which  is  subject  to  the  same  phases  in  all  languages,)  is  strangely  perverted.  "If 
the  quantity  of  the  Syllable  be  measured,  in  the  Classic  mode,  not  by  the  length  of  the 
Vowel,  but  by  the  length  of  the  Syllable  taken  altogether,  see  in  seeing,  being  followed  by 
another  vowel,  is  short."  Compare  Latin  heroes  and  English  heroes,  or  illeus  and 
illeus. 

7  a.  In  the  Latin  Qrammar  of  Prof.  C.  D.  Cleveland,  A.  M.,  it  is  stated  that  "A  letter 
is  a  mark  of  a  sound,"  that  these  marks  of  sound  or  "  Letters,  are  divided  into  vowels  and 
consonants,"  and  that  the  mark  he  calls  "A  vowel,  is  properly  called  a  simple  sound." 
According  to  this,  Comanche  has  neither  vowels  nor  consonants,  French  has  not  a  pecu- 
liar u,  ^  is  a  long  "  vowel,"  and  o  is  a  round  one. 

7  h.  la  one  of  the  widely  spread  school  books  of  R.  Sullivan,  LL.  D.,  T.  C.  D.,  it  is  stated 
that  "A  letter  is  a  character  or  mark  used  in  writing  words.  .  .  .  Letters  are  divided 
into  vowels  and  consonants.  ...  A  triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels  into  one 
sound,  as  ieu  in  adtew."  "In  every  syllable  there  must  be  at  least  one  vowel."  It  can 
have  but  one,  and  may  have  none.  "  Ness  denotes  the  prominent  or  distinguishing  quali- 
ties. .  .  .  Ness  properly  means  a  promontory."     "  For  the  sake  of  euphony,  in,  in  com- 

*  Traits  de  la  Formation  dcs  iMols  dnns  ]a  Langue  Qrecquo,  Paris,  1855,  p.  138. 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


position,  usually  assumes  the  form  of  the  initial  letter  of  the  word  to  which  it  is  pre- 
fixed ;  as  in  i^rnoble,  li/ynorance,"  &c. 

8.  WMUt  such  literary  ideas  have  tended  to  corrupt  the  judgment  of  every  native  in- 
vestigator of  a  badly  written  language,  the  student  in  geometry  and  astronomy  is  not 
trammeled  with  the  magic  and  astrologic  value  of  triangles  and  squares;  the  chemist 
sweeps  awny  the  rubbish  of  alchemy ;  musicians  construct  a  system  adapted  to  their  wants 
without  regard  to  the  features  that  would  render  a  previous  imperfect  system  unintelligible 
without  special  study;  mechanics  and  manufacturers  have  their  standards  and  gauges; 
even  the  cooks  of  the  civilised  world  have  a  uniform  nomenclature;  and  in  his  way  Mr. 
Soyer  has  a  more  philosophic  mind  than  Deacon  Trench,  the  modern  painter  is  a  better 
observer  than  the  poet,  George  Cruikshank  a  better  delineator  than  Charles  Dickens. 

9.  "A  people  will  no  more  quit  their  alphabet  than  they  will  quit  their  language." — 
Trench.  Yet  Anglosaxon,  (which  will  be  called  Anglish,  for  a  reason  given  in  §  255,) 
and  fllncft  XziXZX  disappeared;  old  letters  were  dropped,  (as  those  for  the  sonant  and  surd 
th,  p,  and  the  Danish  vowel  y,)  improper  new  ones  were  introduced,  as  Belgian  (a  term 
used  in  preference  to  Dutch,)  k,  w,  v,  y,  z,  Latin  q,  x,  (not  used  in  normal  Anglish,)  a  pe- 
culiar unauthorized y,  probably  Norman;  and  every  one  of  these  letters,  th,  th,  h,  w,  v,  y, 
z,  q,  X,  j,  was  ignorantly  foisted  upon  English,  by  people  who  had  so  little  idea  of  spelling, 
that  the  same  word  was  often  spelt  in  several  ways  upon  the  same  page.*  Of  these  ten 
novelties,  one  half,  (Jc,  q,  x,  th,  th)  were  unnecessary,  and  the  remainder,  {j,  v,  to,  y,  z,) 
came  in  with  false  powers.  Forms  of  letters  have  varied,  long  s  has  disappeared,  and  ct 
has  replaced  a  form  d  with  an  arched  line  of  union.  Spelling  has  varied  materially  and 
often  for  the  worse,  and  the  modern  page  differs  in  the  use  of  capitals  and  italics. 

10.  Duponceau  olijects  (Tr.  Am.  Phil.  1818,  p.  237)  to  "  the  masquerade  dress  under 
which  men  of  more  fancy  than  reflection  would  disguise  the  immortal  thoughts  of  Milton 
and  Shakespeare,  so  that  the  eye  would  no  longer  at  once  recognise  them,"  &c.  But  this 
disguise  has  been  already  cast  over  them.  Milton  was  born  in  1608,  and  his  Paradise 
Lost  presents  a  very  different  appearance  from  the  first  edition  of  1667.  The  following 
specimen  of  Shakespeare  (in  modern  typography)  shows,  that  (like  Duponceau's  "  vision") 
hisf  spellings  of  1623  have  "  melted  into  Ayre:" 

*  The  foUuwing  examples  are  from  Holland's  Plinie,  1635,  some  of  them  from  contiguous  lines — toe  wee,  the  thee, 
he  hee,  jjtd  pull,  wU  will,  (en  tenne,  eun  mnne,  moon  moone,  start  starret,  els  else,  bin  heme,  phytitian  phytition, 
whelps  whelpcs,  shels  shells,  dee  claice,  oisters  oysters,  meremaidt  mearmaids.  Parkinson  (1640,)  has  poppy  and 
2>oppye  in  the  same  line,  and  Jonstonus  (1657,)  uses  eels  and  eeles.  Chaucer  has  egre  eyer,  mdUjre  maugre,  lest  litt 
luste,  Itwed  lewde,  knicn  knene,  hackenaie  luxkeney. 

f  "These  are  not  his  spellings;  ho  edited  no  play,  and  the  Tempest  was  not  even  published  in  his  life  time. 
They  are  printer's  spellings,  probably  more  regular  than  his."  MS.  note  of  A.  J.  Ellis. 


/" 


ANALTTIC  ORTHOGRAPHT. 


^m. 


into  thin  Ayro ;  ! 

And,  like  the  baselesse  fabricke  of  this  vision, 

The  Clowd-capt  Towres,  the  gorgeous  Paliaces, 

The  solemne  Temples,  the  great  Globe  it  sclfe. 

Yea,  all  which  it  inherit,  shall  dissolue. 

And  like  this  insabstantiall  Pageant  faded, 

Leaue  not  a  racke  behinde. — Tempett,  Act  4,  So.  1,  1G28. 

11.  "  Here  then  are  England  and  Wales,  with  their  sixteen  millions  of  people,  with  near* 
ly  eight  milHona  unable  to  write  their  name,  and  not  less  than  five  millions  unable  to  read 
their  mother  tongue."*  In  the  United  States,  even  in  the  states  which  supply  the  educa- 
tion at  the  expense  of  the  treasury,  the  number  of  illiterate  people  is  very  large.  The 
time  for  attending  school  is  limited  among  the  poor,  and  schools  are  rare  where  the  popu- 
lation is  sparse,  so  that  minds  of  a  high  order  may  remain  undeveloped.  Energy  indeed 
may  overcome  great  difficulties,  but  this  may  form  no  part  of  a  mind  of  high  generalising 
and  inventive  powers. 

12.  The  millions  qf/reemen  kept  in  mental  and  moral  darkness,  instead  of  loving  an  or- 
thography, know  not  what  it  is,  whilst  the  great  mass  of  readers  despise  it; — some  think- 
ing it  a  trick  of  the  schoolmasters  to  extend  the  period  of  tuition — whilst  others  regard  it 
as  a  means  of  separating  society  into  a  lettered  and  an  unlettered  class.f 

13.  A  child  aged  thirteen,  who  can  read,  has  within  a  few  days  spelt  as  follows : — b-a-o-t 
boat,  (not  knowing  the  position  of  the  "silent"  letter,)  1-oo-k,  1-o-k,  lock,  (putting  "double" 
before  o  is  not  suggestive  of  a  different  sound,)  m-u-r-o-u-r  mirror,  {"you"  and  "eye"  are 
equally  unsuggestive  of  the  first  vowel  of  this  word,)  c  h-i-r  chair,  (saying  c-h-ai-r  instead 
of  c-h-a-ai-r.) 

14.  Among  the  moat  mournful  of  theatrical  scenes,  such  as  are  most  likely  to  call  up  feel- 
ings akin  to  those  of  the  poet  who  sung — 

Srdce  moy  szarcze  ach  hui  deos  sadnissa! 
Kard  man  hiort  ag  ouige  diz  sathinassus? 

are  those  in  which  an  illiterate  character  slowly  spells  out  a  letter,  commencing  "  D-ee-r 
C-u-r,"  and  is  greeted  with  a  shout  of  laughter  from  people  who  would  spell  cur  (which 
has  a  cay  sound)  with  a  consonant  called  see,  and  a  vowel  called  you,  and  then  pronounce 
this  s-you-r  as  cur. 

*  British  Q.  R.  Nov.  1846,  Art.  VIII.,  p.  472,  quoted  in  Ellis's  P'ea,  2d  ed.  p.  66. 

f  "It  is  better  for  criticism  to  be  modest  .  .  .  till  the  pardoi  tble  variety  of  pronunciation,  and  the  true 
spelling  by  the  vulgar  have  satirized  into  reformation  that  pen-craft  which  keeps  up  the  troubles  of  orthography 
for  no  other  purpose,  as  one  can  divine,  than  to  boast  of  a  very  qnesfionahk  merit  at  a  criterion  of  education." — 
Dr.  Jumes  Rush,  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Voice,  Philadelphia,  1833,  p.  383. 


r 


1. 


3^  •  ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

15.  Three  milliona  of  people  can  support  a  literature  in  all  its  branches,  from  primers 
and  almanacs  to  encyclopoodias  and  universal  histories.  This  may  be  given  in  round  num- 
bers, as  the  amount  of  population  supporting  Danish,  Swedish,  and  modern  Greek ;  and 
about  a  million  Albanians  are  divided  upon  three  alphabets,  the  Italian,  Greek,  and  a  na- 
tive one  of  52  characters,  more  dififerent  from  the  Greek  and  Italian  than  these  are  differ- 
ent from  each  other.  A  journal  is  considered  to  be  well  supported  when  2,000  copies  can 
be  disposed  of,  and  in  the  Book  Trade,  works  devoted  to  special  branches  of  knowledge 
are  often  printed  in  editions  of  250  copies,  not  as  rarities  for  bibliomaniacs,  but  to  supply 
the  probable  demand. 

16.  Wlien  more  rational  modes  of  orthography  arise,  there  will  therefore  be  much  danger, 
not  from  the  dearth  of  books,  but  from  the  multiplicity  of  alphabets  which  will  be  pro- 
posed— and  it  is  possible  that  there  may  be  half  a  dozen  in  the  British  Islands,  and  twice 
as  many  on  the  Vesperian  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

17.  There  is  a  politic  reason  for  a  reformed  orthography.  The  age  demands  it,  and 
the  population  is  moving  steadily  towards  it,  unconvinced  by  platitudes  on  the  Study  of 
Words  by  those  who  have  not  exhibited  that  acquaintance  with  the  science  which  the 
discussion  of  its  principles  demands.  The  reform  should  be  undertaken  with  all  the  aids 
that  science  and  scholarship  can  command.  Let  the  fields  of  philology,  physiology,  epi- 
graphy, and  living  speech  be  explored,  and  let  an  alphabet  be  erected,  so  free  from  those 
national  perversions  which  national  vanity  might  wish  to  be  legitimate,  that  no  one  will 
have  the  power  to  say — "  They  are  only  exhibiting  the  dress  of  their  vernacular," — "This 
letter  has  a  purely  English  power," — "  l^hat  is  a  French  corruption." 

18.  Let  i?ie  alphabet  be  capable  of  enlargement,  to  render  it  adaptable  to  all  languages, 
whether  English,  Italian,  or  Tahitian,  and  equally  suitable  for  the  dialect  of  the  peasant 
and  the  tables  of  the  comparative  philologist;  and  let  it  not  run  counter  to  the  great  ety- 
mologic and  metric  principle  which  requires  that  all  records,  statements,  and  comparisons, 
shall  be  made  in  symbols,  each  of  which  shall  represent  the  same  phenomena. 

19.  The  great  succeaa  of  phonography  shows  that  not  a  single  concession  which  is  false 
in  principle,  need  be  made  to  conciliate  English  sympathies,  (§12,)  or  to  preserve  so-called 
English  analogies;  and  it  would  be  unkind  and  ungenerous  to  all  nations  having  the  allied 
pairs  of  vowels  in  they  them,  marine  mariner,  he  his,  were  the  attempt  made  to  assign  cha- 
racters to  them  as  diverse  as  a,  e,  for  the  former,  and  e,  i,  for  the  latter.  The  unlettered 
five  millions  yeeZ  theaffinity  between  the  vowels  of  break  and  wreck,  who  would  see  no  more 
fitness  in  the  dissimilar  forms  a,  e,  than  the  chemist  finds  in  the  cumbersome  notation  of 
the  alchemists. 


ANALTTIO  ORTIIOGBAPHT. 


11 


20.  It  is  admitted  by  Mr.  Ellis,  (Plea,  2d  ed.,  1848,  p.  130,)  that  his  English  alphabet 
of  1848  would  injure  the  visible  etymological  connection  between  Italian  and  Latin;  "but 
toe  should  us  much  injure  the  visible  etymological  relation  between  Emjlish  and  latin  by  any 
other  mode  of  spelling."  But  as  Italian  is  nearer  to  Latin  than  Englieh  is,  a  proper  or- 
thography would  show  it.  English  has  no  right  to  seem  to  have  a  certain  resemblance  to 
Latin  which  it  has  not — to  pretend,  by  spelling  secure  with  an  e-character,  that  it  is  nearer 
to  the  Latin  securus  than  is  the  Italian  sicuro.  §  256 — 8. 

21.  The  English  consonant  th,  and  the  vowels  in  at,  up,  not  being  Latin  sounds,  should 
hot  be  represented  by  Latin  letters,  but  by  new  or  modified  forms,  so  that  the  eye  could 
detect  strange  or  unlatin  elements  in  an  unlatin  language,  as  readily  as  the  eye  detects 
Pc^lish  by  its  crossed  I,  and  distinguishes  Portuguese  from  Spanish  by  a  nasal  sign,  which 
also  separates  Polish  from  Bohemian,  as  it  should  separate  French  from  Italian,  to  exhibit 
its  afSnity  with  Portuguese. 

22.  German  should  not  exhibit  a  seeming  resemblance  to  English  in  th  for  t  in  tJteil,  (a 
part,)  a  cognate  of  deal,  because  English  th  is  not  wanted  in  German ;  nor  should  French 
have  th  (for  Greek  tbeta)  in  tliime,  where  the  English  are  entitled  to  it.  The  Welsh, 
having  the /sound,  should  not  writejf  for/of  the  twelfth  century,  and  having  English  v 
(for  which  *w'  was  used  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  *u'  in  the  thirteenth)  they  should 
not  write  it  with  the  /  character — although  this  is  a  trifling  error  compared  to  that  of 
using  the  Latin  V  {toay,  §  106)  character  for  the  English  vee  sound.  In  short,  Welsh, 
German,  Latin,  English  &c.  writing  should  resemble  when  the  words  are  alike — when 
different,  it  should  dissemble. 

23.  ^loe  can  pronounce  French  aiid  Polish,  we  can  appreciate  the  relations  between  the 
following  pairs,  in  which  the  Poles  have  sought  to  secure  an  identity  in  the  vx)rd  rather 
than  in  the  sign : — b^asse,  behas,  (snipe ;)  paragraphe,  paragraf ;  paraly tique,  paralityh; 
page,^2'/  bagage,  ia^az';  ^9xaao\, parasol;  parapluie, 2)ara/)%',  (umbrella;)  Triest,  Trst; 
German  meister,  Polish  majster;  English  Mr.,  Bohemian  mistr. 

24.  A  phypiological  basis  has  been  advocated,  and  the  alacrity  with  which  the  Standard 
Alphabet  of  Professor  Lepsius,  (London,  1855,)  has  been  adopted  by  various  missionary 
societies,  seems  to  be  an  evidence  in  favour  of  such  a  basis.  Unfortunately,  the  acknow- 
ledged merits  of  the  learned  author  have  caused  this  work  to  be  adopted  without  due  ex- 
amination. This  "admirable  treatise,"  (p.  III.  of  the  preliminary  recommendations,) 
wherein  the  author  "clearly  explains  the  scientific  principles,"  (V.)  the  result  of  his 
"close  and  profound  attention,"  (VII.)  and  "Fleiss,"  (VIII.)  or  industry;  "principles 
which  Professor  Lepsius  has  so  ably  sketched,"  (VII.)  and  which  are  to  diminish  "  the 


12 


ANALTTIO  ORTUOGRAPUr. 


difficulties  encountered  in  the  formation  of  a  language  previously  unwritten,"  (VI.) — this 
treatise,  as  a  System,  is  unphilosophic,  inconsistent,  vacillating,  and  superficial.* 

25.  Dr.  Lepeiw concedes  that  an  alphabetic  system  should  admit  of  "  reduction  and  enlarge- 
ment without  alteration  in  its  essential  principles."  Yet  a  uniform  mode  of  enlargement 
is  not  proposed,  and  whilst  7  is  allowed  to  represent  an  aspirate  2,  n  is  not  allowed  to  re- 
present an  aspirate  n,  because  I  is  "fricative"  and  n  "explosive,"  by  a  false  theory;  nor 
is  there  a  substitute  suggested  for  the  forbidden  splritds  aspSr  mark.  The  diacritic  marks 
used  are  not  restricted  to  particular  phases  of  speech ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  one  mark  is 
assigned  several  heterogeneous  values. 

26.  Profeaeor  Lepdvs  has  not  quoted  Mr.  Ellis,  who  is  much  his  superior  in  this  intricate 
subject,  nor  Dr.  Latham,  who  would  have  informed  him  that  a  diphthong  b  not  compoi^d 
of  two  vowels.  Nor  has  he  given  the  Latin  alphabet  a  critical  revision,  if  we  may  judge 
from  his  notion  (p.  41)  that  the  Latin  diphthong  (E  is  the  German  vowd  o,  and  that  (XELUm 
ends  with  German  m,  and  that  this  Latin  word  is,  in  German  letterp,  kolum,  rather  than 
(in  Polish  notation)  kojlu,,  or  (French)  coylou". 

27.  English  spelling  has  a  redeeming  feature  to  which  the  late  period  of  its  reform  gives 
incalculable  value.  Its  corrtiption  ia  ao  great,  that  any  consistent  alphabet  would  have  so 
many  discrepancies  from  the  present  one,  that  the  few  concessions  which  the  new  could 
make,  would  be  of  very  little  aid  to  any  one  already  able  to  read  the  corrupt  one,  whilst 
the  drudgery  of  learning  the  irregularities  of  this,  would  be  lessened  but  little  by  the  form 
of  a  phonotypic  one  previously  learned.  Hence,  as  far  as  English  is  concerned,  the  new 
alphabet  might  be  Greek,  Russian,  or  phonography,  because  the  labour  of  learning  to  read 
a  consistent  new  alphabet  is  not  great.f 

28.  The  Cherokeea,  who  have  a  cumbersome  and  imperfect  syllabary  of  85  characters,  which 
must  be  laboriously  written  in  their  printed  forms,  when  advised  to  adopt  the  Roman  al- 
phabet, express  the?r  distrust  of  ours,  stating  that  the  best  argument  in  favor  of  their 
own  is  the  fact,  that  when  their  children  have  learnt  the  characters,  they  are  able  to  read. 

29.  English  epellin^  is  so  irregular  that  any  reformed  orthography  in  Roman  typography 

*  See  my  Report  on  the  Present  State  of  our  Knowledge  of  Lingnistio  Ethnology,  made  to  the  American  Asbo- 
ciation  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  (Tenth  Meeting,)  August,  1866. 

f  The  use  of  a  corrupt  alphabet  induces  bad  habits  in  a  phonetic  one  like  Greek.  A  girl  of  fourteen,  who  knew 
the  sounds  of  German  and  French,  learnt  the  Greek  alphabet  in  one  hour,  about  one-fourth  of  which  was  taken 
up  with  a  work  on  inscriptions,  to  account  for  the  writing  forms;  but  when  words  were  to  be  spelled  oat,  ^v  was 
converted  into  English  on;  e?c  (instead  of  having  the  initial  vowel  of  «teA)  became  ice;  and  to  words  like  xda/ioc 
with  the  genuine  but  short  vowel  of  cSast,  that  of  cost  was  assigned,  (for  even  in  the  modem  tongue,  o  and  w  have 
the  same  quality.)  Similarly,  several  persons  have  been  met  with,  who  read  the  Spanbh  article  el  like  the  first 
syllable  of  alley;  because,  Spanish  e  being  English  a,  a4  must  spell  al. 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


13 


must  present  radical  differences,  because  one  mode  of  notation  nuist  replace  nniiii/  modes. 
Hence  if  o  is  adopted  with  its  correct  power  in  host,  the  word  lost  must  vary  from  its  pre- 
sent form,  and  nothing  in  the  new  can  recall  old  forms  like  lore,  lose,  and  the  seven  or  eight 
thousand  words  spelt  with  final  e,  which  must  disappear  from  the  whole,  perhaps  to  be 
transferred  to  other  words  which  have  been  spelt  with  a  different  final  character.  Di- 
graphs being  wrong  in  principle,  they  should  not  even  be  hinted  at,  as  in  using  a  character 
like  GO  to  recall  the  old  oo,  which  ought  not  to  be  recalled  intentionally,  and  for  ages  to 
come.  Compare  door,  adore,  oar,  four;  rot,  rote,  root,  groat,  slough;*  mote,  moat;  they, 
met,  meet,  meat,  mete;  great,  grate;  bate,  bait;  bite,  bight;  heel,  heal,  fealty. 

30.  "  Writers  on  phonetics  .  .  .  adopt  the  present  letters  as  far  as  they  go,  adding 
a  few  new  ones  to  complete  the  list.  They  wish  to  retain  the  old  letters,  so  that  the  pre- 
sent generation  may  be  able  to  read  the  new  way  with  little  trouble.  Grave  as  this  con- 
sideration may  look,  it  is  but  a  slight  one.  A  man  can  learn  a  phonetic  alphabet  which 
is  altogether  new  to  him,  in  a  few  hours;  a  labor  insignificant  in  an  alphabet  intended  to 
spread  over  the  world.  There  is  no  advantage  to  the  learner,  in  retaining  a  letter  as  to 
its  shape,  and  changing  its  character.  We  may  retain  the  letter  e,  but  when  we  restrict  if, 
to  one  of  the  many  sounds  it  now  stands  for,  we  make  a  new  letter  of  it.  It  occasioned  me 
more  trouble  to  remember  that  a  particular  sound  belongs  to  the  printing  a,  and  another 
to  the  written  a,  than  to  attach  those  sounds  to  new  characters,  because  in  this  latter  case 
the  other  sounds  of  the  letter  a  are  not  constantly  occurring  to  my  mind."  Condensed 
from  An  Endeavor  towards  a  Universal  Alphcthet;  hy  A.  D.  Sproat,  Chillicothe,  Ohio,  1857. 

31.  English  spelling  can  he  reformed  thoroughli/,where(ia,  in  Spanish,  Italian,  and  German, 
the  imperfections  are  fewer,  and  their  removal  less  imperative.  The  Italian  syllable  qui 
corresponds  with  Latin  QVi,  but  Spanish  qui  has  u  silent.  Italian  uses  J  nearly  in  its  pro- 
per Latin  sense,  Spanish  corrupts  it  to  a  guttural  aspirate,  and  uses  y  instead  of  Latin  J; 
Spanish  ch  is  tsh,  Italian  ch  is  k,  that  is,  h  keeps  the  cay  pure  in  Italian,  and  corrupts  it 
in  Spanish.     It  may  be  long  before  such  discrepancies  are  removed. 

32.  The  English  word  chew  (tshoo,  Walker)  would  be  expressed  by  chu  in  Spanish,  ciu  in 
Italian,  tschu  in  German,  tchau  in  French,  ?/y  or  mmy  in  Russian,  czu  in  Polish,  csu  in  Hun- 
garian, and  wfi  in  Hebrew.  The  Greek  and  Latin  alphabets  are  incapable  of  representing 
it — for  in  tshu,  the  sh  should  have  their  power  in  mishap,  and  s  being  already  an  aspirate, 
it  cannot  be  treated  like  the  lenis  t,  to  form  th.  If  the  English  word /avor  were  German, 
it  would  be  spelt  fewer;  and  if  the  Latin  cor  (heart)  were  English,  it  would  be  spelt  care, 
as  in  fact  it  is. 


*  As  words,  'groat'  and  'slougb'  are  uokoown  to  the  writer,  except  the  latter  as  a  medical  term. 


3 


14 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOORAPUY. 


33.  1/  Eugliuh  spelling  had  been  reformed  earlier,  it  would  have  been  badly  done,  by  per- 
sons ignorant  of  the  bearings  of  the  subject,  and  before  a  correct  enumeration  of  the  sounds 
had  been  made.  Now  physicMsts  like  Willis,  Herschel  and  Faber,  and  philologists  of  the 
first  class,  contribute  their  stores,  based  upon  a  more  refined  analysis  of  the  operations  of 
speech.  Formerly,  had  there  been  an  educated  class,  (educated  in  linguistic  science,)  this 
class  would  have  stood  aloof  until  an  alphabet  as  corrupt  as  the  present  one  would  have 
been  fastened  upon  the  language,  making  English  the  laughing  stock  of  civilised  and  savage 
nations,  indirectly  checking  its  influence — cutting  off  the  English  people  from  the  antece- 
dents of  their  language,  whether  Anglic,  classic  or  Celtic — depriving  them  of  the  inci- 
dental etymologic  knowledge  which  is  suggested  through  the  eye  of  a  population  where 
information  is  acquired  by  reading  rather  than  by  conversation — and  surrounding  tbem 
with  a  literary  Chinese  wall,  not  to  exclude  the  barbarians,  but  to  keep  them  within  the 
circle  of  their  abominations. 

34.  If  Walker  had  used  a  phonetic  alphabet  instead  of  his  figured  notation,  he  would  have 
done  much  towards  a  reform  in  spelling;  but  he  would  probably  have  allowed  b-a-r  to 
spell  bare  instead  of  bar;  n-o-t  to  spell  not  rather  than  note — sanctioning  corruptions  which 
a  better  educated  age  might  have  a  difficulty  in  removing. 

35.  Walker'B  notation  ia  not  chronologic,  as  in  tar,  which  he  marks  with  Oa  instead  of  ai, 
or  simply  a,  as  the  original  power  for  which  the  character  was  made.  A  chronologic  notation 
would  run  something  like  /«ir,  ajl,  whaj,  faj,*  aje,  fa^re,  (French  e,)  umbrella^,  ma^ny, 
pla^it;  mariiue,  wiiH,  wiaW,  fiiV;  Shang-hoB^  (-high,)  Gai.}ic,CkiB^8ar;  o{tm,o^,ho^or,'moji)e, 
wo^rk.  If,  with  such  a  notation,  the  orthoepists  had  represented  agiven  sound  with  the  letter 
having  the  lowest  figure,  the  tendency  would  have  been  from  corruption  toward  purity, 
and  the  figured  pronunciation  would  have  been  a  collateral  aid  to  etymology,  especially 
if  characters  which  want  the  original  power  in  English,  had  been  started  without  the 
lower  numbers,  as  in  rhyjthm,  {y^  being  the  Greek  vowel,  and  yj  the  French  «i,)  rhy^ifne, 
my^rrh,  y^^r. 

36.  Mr.  Trench  uses  an  argument  which  deserves  attention.f  He  considers  it  an  as- 
sumption of  the  spelling  reformers  "  that  all  men  pronounce  all  words  alike,  so  that  when- 
ever they  come  to  spell  a  word,  they  will  exactly  agree  as  to  what  the  outline  of  its  sound 
is.    Now  we  are  sure  men  will  not  do  this  from  the  fact  that,  before  there  was  any  fixed 

*  Mr.  Ellis  thinks  that  ami  had  the  vowel  of  fat  formerly; — that  all  what  were  not  early  sounds;  that  within 
three  hundred  years,  made  lade  were  mad  lad,  with  the  vowel  lengthened;  and  that  the  historic  order  of  the 
powers  is — arm,  fat,  all,  what,  fare,  ale.  Mr.  Ellis  will  present  a  history  of  English  pronunciation  for  the  last 
three  centuries,  in  the  third  edition  of  his  Plea,  to  be  published  in  the  United  States. 

f  EiiglUh,  Past  and  Present,  Lecture  V.,  a  production  which,  in  sixty  years,  is  likely  to  be  regarded  as  a  curi- 
osity, if  we  may  be  allowed  to  reason  from  the  condition  of  chemical  notation  in  1798. 


■^' 


ANALYTIC  OKTIIOGRAI'UY. 


15 


and  settled  orthography  [pronunciation?]  in  our  language,  when  therefore  every  hody  wa» 
more  or  less  a  phonographer,  seeking  to  write  down  the  word  m  it  sounded  to  him,  for" 
like  the  Hebrews,  Hindoos,  Greeks,  Latins,  Welsh,  and  Cherokees,  "  he  had  no  other  law 
to  guide  him,  the  variations  of  spelling  were  infinite.  [*]  Take  for  instance  the  word  »xul- 
den;  which  does  not  seem  to  promise  any  great  scoj»e  for  variety." 

37.  Certainly  iwt,  if  we  spell  all  the  variations  of  nuhdnn  (with  silent  h  as  in  ««/> — f)  to 
suit  the  Latin  SUBiTANeus,  or  conform  them  to  the  French  mwda'nt,-e.  He  proceeds  to 
cite  fourteen  spellings,  assumimj  that  they  represented  the  modern  word,  and  not  the  lost 
forms  from  which  our  nudden  is  derived.  Double  forms  like  soden  and  middain,  perhaps 
of  different  age  and  locality,  may  (apart  from  the  blunder  of  the  double  d)  have  bien  as 
correct  formerly  as  are  now  urban  and  urbane;  human  and  humane;  travail  and  travel; 
costume  and  custom;  clarify,  glory,  glare,  glair,  and  cJeiir;  einmet  and  ant;  decking  and 
ticking;  or  brest  of  Wiclif,  Chaucer,  Shakespeare,  and  the  lettered  vulgar,  bowide  breast  of 
those  who  know  not  the  use  of  letters,  according  to  Prisc''ian's  definition. 

38.  Granting  tlutt  tJiese  fourteen  spellings  stood  for  the  same  vocable,  h  iving  the  vowel 
up  in  the  first,  and  of  end  in  the  second  syllable,  these  sounds  were  unprovided  with  spe- 
cial characters,  so  that  sud-  might  be  spelt  sod-,  with  o  in  xoorth,  or  mdd-,  sudd-,  some  writing 
dd  to  shorten  the  vowel,  as  we  spell  mid  sad,  will  wilful.  Thus,  sodain  may  have  had 
the  vowels  of  worth  and  said ;  sodaine — 

Jolous  in  honor  sodaine  and  quicke  in  quarrell. — Ai  you  like  it,  1U23. 

the  e  of  imagine(-ation;)  sodan  the  vowel  of  many;  aodayne  that  of  says,  {sayd;)  sodein-e 
that  of  heifer;  sodeyn  that  of  they  pure,  or  modified  as  in  its  derivative  them,  as  silent  b 
turns  break  into  wreck.  Other  forms  would  have  been  justified  by  fri'end,  jeopardy,  dead, 
foetid,  guess,  panegyric,  {Ellis,  Plea  2d  Ed.,  p.  155,)  English  being  more  irregular  here 
than  old  English,  with  the  difference,  that  the  moderns  corrupt  a  wider  field  with  their 
irregularities.     Abner  Kneeland  thus  answers  the  foregoing  objection.^: 

*  As  in  the  variations  of  the  Latin  word  duo,  which  have  been  spelt  as  in  two,  twioo,  Iwaia,  twelve,  duodeci- 
mo, (fodecahedroD,  dual,  deuoe,  double,  doubt,  <ub,  diander,  bisect,  balance: — or  ofoENTlLis — genteel,  gentil- 
ity, gentile,  gentle,  jaunty ;  of  which  the  first,  as  the  oldest  and  nearest  the  original,  should  have  had  a  more  ety- 
mologic orthography,  whilst  the  last  should  not  have  been  spelt  with  j  and  y.  So  Greek  varies,  as  in  yivvoz,  ytuvbCj 
yevd^,  Xtwz,  5 woe,  fvvoc,  /vv6c,  a  hinny  (ginnet,  jennet.) 

f  Here  the  writer  oonsnlts  Ogilvie's  Imperial  Dictionary  to  be  assured  that  there  is  a  word  subtil,  saggested  by 
French  and  Latin,  but  he  finds  only  subtle  and  subtile.  The  form  attendance  caused  the  third  word  of  this  es- 
say to  be  misspelt  tendancy,  and  gauge  (§  7)  was  spelt '  guage '  through  ignorance  of  the  conventional  form.  In 
another  place  the  writer  has  spelt  privitive  as  '  privative.'  • 

X  A  specimen  of  the  American  Pronouncing  Spelling  Book,  &e.  Philadelphia,  1824.  Printed  partly  in  a 
phonetic  alphabet. 


It 


ANALYTIC  OKTUUUKAPUY. 


81).  "J/  IhiH  Hyntem  of  (jrt/i)Mjraji/iy  nhould  ever  bo  adopted  lor  the  language  itself,  it  i8 
recoininended  that  aotri/  aut/ntr  nltnuld  write  aft  he  hhiiHelf  wnild  pronounce;  and  then,  as 
it  IB  natural  for  every  one  to  strive  to  imitate  the  best  writers  and  speakers,  in  proeewt  of 
time  the  linujuatje  would  heeome  nettled  in  a  uniform  mode  of  writing  and  speaking." 

40.  //  in  beeoniing  evident,  that  without  an  orthographic  reform,  the  integrity  and  uni- 
versality of  the  English  language  will  be  destroyed,  and  the  arch  with  which  it  spans  the 
globe  will  full  into  fragments  more  heterogeneous  than  the  dialects  now  current  in  the 
British  Islands.  Webster  gives  a  word  m/Mery;  and  eng-ine  is  common  in  the  United 
Stotes:  both  being  taken  from  books,  and  not  from  speech.  This  would  not  have  hap- 
pened if  rdillenj  had  conformed  to  its  analogue  yidlery,  and  engine  (Fr.  engin)  to  virgin 
and  origin.  These  are  examples  of  corruption  in  one  direction;  in  another,  chiefly  duo 
to  the  East  Indian  press,  we  find  a  jargon  coming  into  use,  and  reminding  one  of  the 
thieves'  dialect  in  London.  Thus,  un  English  soldier  will  *'  loot  the  camp,"  where  an 
American  (since  the  Mexican  war)  will  "  vamos  the  ranch." 

41.  The  present  author  laid  an  alphabet  before  a  learned  society  in  the  year  1844,  but 
withdrew  it  before  it  was  reported  on,  because  he  had  a  limited  knowledge  of  vocal  phe- 
nomena, and  was  not  acquainted  with  the  Latin  alphabet — a  knowledge  which  must  pre- 
cede every  attempt  to  employ  it  for  phonetic,  etymologic,  or  ethnologic  purposes.  Since 
that  period,  the  Greek  and  Latin  alphabets  have  been  studied,  but  leaving  three  points 
still  in  doubt;  namely,  whether  Greek  r;  had  the  power  of  e  in  they,  (the  Latin  E,)  or  in 
there,  (but  accepting  the  latter,  chiefly  on  the  authority  of  E.  A.  Sophocles;)  next,  whether 
Latin  0  was  German,  English,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese  o,  or  Italian  o,  (which  varies  a 
very  little  towards  aice;)  and,  what  was  the  nature  of  Latin  L,  of  which  the  accounts 
given  by  the  ancient  grammarians  are  unsatisfactory.  From  philologic  considerations,  0 
and  L  have  been  assigned  their  German  and  English  power,  which  would  cause  the  Ger- 
man word  lob  (praise,)  the  English  word  lobe,  and  the  first  syllable  of  the  Latin  LOB-us 
to  be  written  LOB. 

41  a.      TEN   PARADOXES. 


1.  The  letters  c  and  s  never  have  the  power  of  ah  in  English. 

2.  In  disquisitions  upon  the  elements  of  speech,  the  term  diphthong  is  useless. 

3.  The  term  euphony  is  useless  in  etymology.  (This  view  has  been  anticipated  in  Prof. 
Key's  paper  "On  the  Misuse  of  the  terms  Epenthesis  and  Euphony."  Philological  So- 
ciety's Transactions,  1847,  Vol.  III.  pp.  45—56.) 

4.  Allowing  wh  or  hw  to  represent  the  initial  sound  of  when,  and  en  the  closing  vowel 
and  consonant — ^when'  or  ^hwen'  will  not  spell  the  word. 


AifAr.TTIC  ORTHOORAPIIT. 


17 


6.  In  DevonHhiru,  turnip  is  furmlt*     This  is  not  on  exainpb  of  a  cliange  from  /'  to  ;/*. 
C.  The  word  piyeon  is  spelt  with  a  silent »/. 

7.  The  assimilation  o(  ad  to  fi/hefore/in  affinitas,  iti  not  present  in  offinUy. 

8.  As  English  allows  a  word  to  be  cpelt  like  its  cognate  in  some  other  language,  (writing 
2*SA?M,  with  ita  three  elements,  as  if  it  were  the  Delginn  PSALM,  with/iVe,)  the  paradox 
of  an  entire  English  line  thus  written,  is  presented  in  §  14,  the  line  being — 

«  Heart,  my  heart,  Oh  why  this  aadncM !" 

0.  The  muskrat  is  a  rat-shaped  rod-ent  with  a  strong  scent  of  musk;  yet  it  was  not 
named  from  its  musky  odor. 

10.  Port  Tobacco  in  Maryland  is  a  port  at  which  tobacco  is  shipped,  yet  port  and  to- 
hicco  bad  nothing  to  do  with  the  original  naming  of  the  town. 


CHAPTER  II. 


BASIS  AND  RULES  OF  NOTATION. 

When  a  auicnco  is  imperfectly  developed,  or  founded  on  a  falae  theory,  it  is  sure  to  find  itself  in  difficuUicN  and  restric- 
tions,  which  furin  a  o tumbling-block  to  the  student,  and  frequently  cause  its  rejection  altogether. —  W.  O.  Uerdman,  Art 
Journal,  1849,  p.  330. 

The  complete  alphabet  mutt  not  contradict  the  Latin  parent  alphabet;  that  is,  every  Latin  letter  adopted  into  the  C(mi- 
plete  Slavonic  alphabet,  must  have  no  other  than  its  Lntin  power,  Lutin  l)eing,  us  it  were,  the  universal  language. — I'uk- 
hikar,  AnkUndifiung  eines  .  .  .  Universal-  oder  Welt-  Alpliabetes.     Laibaoh,  1851. 

None  but  Latin  lettera  are  to  be  admitted  into  the  universol  alphabet.— ^ox  Miiller'a  Languages  of  the  Seat  of  Wor, 
London,  1855,  p.  54 with  a  due  regard  to  the  primitive  power  of  the  Roman  alphabet. — Sir  W.  Jonea. 

Finding  the  statements  respecting  the  Latin  alphabet  to  a  certain  extent  contradictory  and  unsatisfactory,  I  rcKolvedto 
investigate  it,  with  the  intention  of  using  it  striiih/  according  to  Ha  Latin  aignificalion,  as  far  as  this  could  be  ascertained. 
Huldcman,  Latin  Pronunciation,  Philadelphia,  1857. 

§  42.  Although  the  Roman  alplmhet  has  been  extensively  used  as  a.  basis  of  notation,  the 
Russian  occupies  a  wide  space,  not  only  for  the  Slavonic  languages  which  employ  it  in  a 
modified  form;  but  it  constitutes  one  of  the  alphabets  of  Wallachian,  and  is  extensi.ely 
used  by  the  Russian  philologists  for  the  various  languages  investigated  by  them — but  not 
exclusively,  for  Gastrin  uses  the  Roman  alphabet  for  Samoiedic,  and  Poklukar  (apparently 
an  Illyrian)  recommends  it  for  the  Slavonic  languages.  Duponceau  (Am.  Phil.  Trans.  Vol. 
I.,  New  Series,  1817,  p.  264,)  recommended  the  "small  Greek  alphabet"  (excluding capi- 
tals) for  general  purposes,  with  additions  from  the  Russian. 

*  Palmer's  Devonshire  Dialect,  1837,  p.  91,  mentioned  also  in  George  Jackson's  Popular  Errors  in  English 
Grammar,  1830,  p.  24.  This  curious  form  has  been  developed  spontaneously  and  independeatly  by  two  childreu 
when  learning  to  speak,  in  a  locality  where  the  ezbtence  of  such  a  sound  was  unknown. 


18 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


43.  Tlie  Latin  alpJiahet  is  adopted  in  these  pages,  after  considerable  practice  with  other 
modes  of  writing,  and  letters  are  recommended  which  have  not  been  used  in  collecting  ex- 
amples from  native  sources ;  so  that  nothing  is  recommended  because  it  toas  familiar,  or  in 
use  in  the  vernacular  of  tfte  writer.  The  object  in  view  has  been  to  subserve  the  cause  of 
science,  from  a  scientific  basis. 

44.  The  Latin  alphabet  is  very  ancient,  its  power  can  be  ascertained  better  than  French, 
when  this  is  investigated  from  books  alone,  and  it  runs  parallel  with  Sanscrit,  Greek,  and 
the  archaic  portions  of  English.  As  long  as  Latin  was  studied  for  its  literature,  its  pro- 
nunciation was  of  secondary  importance.  Now  that  it  is  to  be  quoted,  not  only  to  solve 
the  deepest  problems,  but  to  give  to  school-boys  an  idea  of  the  steps  in  the  formation  of  a 
vernacular  word, — it  has  become  necessary  to  lay  aside  the  conventional  pronunciation, 
at  least  when  lessons  in  the  genuine  principles  of  etymology  are  given. 

45.  Ten  years  Jience,  every  pupil  in  a  grammar  school  may  know  that  he  cannot  derive 
an  English  word  with  a  cay  power,  from  a  Latin  one  with  a  letter  called  see,  (as  canker 
from  cancer,  or  sickle  from  sicilis;)  nor  pervert  Latin  cera  (wax)  in  one  direction  to  enable 
him  to  derive  cerate;  or  vallu™  in  anotJier,  to  remove  it  from  wall,  the  initial  of  vallu™, 
Sanscrit  vala^  and  wall,  and  of  cera  and  Irish  ceir  (wax,  with  k)  being  identic* 

46.  Yet  the  bigotry  of  a  false  education  is  such,  that  for  a  few  years  it  will  be  as  difficult  to 
convince  school  teachers,  that  an  identic  syllable  is  used  in  the  English  {e)lide,  the  Ger- 
man leid  (an  injury,)  and  the  Latin  Li^D(-o,  I  injure,)  as  it  is  to  convince  them  that 
letters  called  jlee,  e,  double-you,  dzhee,  a,  double-ymi,  cannot  (literally  call  out,  'name,  or)  spell 
"gew-gaw." 

Rule  1.  .;.■»   .^ '  ■.. 

47.  Every  simple  sound  or  element  sJiotild  Ivave  a  single  letter  to  represent  it. — Max  Miiller, 
Latham,  Lepsius,  Rush,  Matushik.f ' 

47  a.  "  This  excludes  the  combinations  ng,  ch,  th." — Lepsius.  It  excludes  Lepsius'  'p,  &c., 
for  p  ai^J  h  in  hap/mzard,  because  he  has  already  ap  and  an  A;  and  g'  in  gem,  because  he 
has  d  and  French  J;  and  it  excludes  German  z,  Latin  x,  Albanian  ndzh,  mb,  nd,  &c. 

*  It  appears  from  Prof.  T.  F.  Richardson's  "  Roman  Orthoepy,"  Now  York,  1859,  that  he  has  tanght  this  sub- 
ject in  Rochester  University  for  the  last  eight  years,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  authorities.  This  institution  has 
therefore  the  honor  of  taking  the  lead  in  Latin  instruction,  by  rejecting  the  barbarous  jargon  which  has  hitherto 
usurped  its  name  and  place.  Here  we  find  J  as  in  year,  M  is  eye,  and  C,  G,  are  cay,  gay.  The  learned  Kraitsir 
has  also  done  mvch  for  Latin  in  his  "  Glossology,"  New  York,  1852. 

f  The  same  combination  of  sounds  should,  under  the  same  circumstances,  be  always  represented  by  the  same 
combinations  of  symbols,  and  conversely.  ...  I  consider  also  that  contractions  are  admissible  (a  single  letter  for 
any  combinations  of  frequency)  provided  they  are  always  used  in  the  same  sense. — EUi»,  MS. 


I  i  i 


ANALYTIC  URTHOGRAPUY. 


19 


48.  Rule  1  excludes  that  false  notation  which  has  arisen  from  inability  to  analyze  sounds. 
Several  English  orthoepists  regard  oy  as  compound,  because  they  can  detect  its  vowel  or 
initial  in  other  places,  who  suppose  i  (eye)  to  be  simple,  because  they  cannot  get  quite 
the  same  initial  vowel  in  other  places. 

49.  One  letter  for  ttoo  sounds  being  unphilosophie,  there  can  be  no  rule  to  restrict  such  a 
lice^ise,  and  where  the  Italian  fancies  there  is  a  necessity  for  a  ts  and  a  tsh  character  re- 
spectively, the  Albanian  with  equal  propriety,  may  ask  for  their  reversals  st  and  sJit. 

50.  There  is  no  scientific  reason  for  writing  kinn  in  German,  and  kjin  or  c'in  for  chin  in 
English  (§  21,  &c.,)  because  dzlt  tsh  are  not  always  due  to  gutturals,  as  in  Italian  gioglio 
(loliu",)  giglio  (liliu™,)  giraffa,  concistorio,  cinghiale,  ciocciare;  clieckinate,  charivari,  chap- 
aral.  Cay  may  also  become  s  or  English  z,  as  in  despiCable,  despiSe;  and  if  g^  or  g'  is  to 
have  the  corrupt  power  in  g^in  because  it  is  often  derived  from  gay  (from  any  guttural, 
or  from  h,)  shall  we  «^e\\  jealous  with  it?  or  with  a  marked  z?  because  it  is  from  zealmis, 
and  in  fact,  English  z  audj  are  more  nearly  allied  than  pure  and  corrupt  g. 

51.  But  cay  and  tshee,  gay  and  dzhee,  have  no  analogy,  still  less  have  they  affinity.  "  En 
histoire  naturelle,  rien  n'est  plus  trompeur  que  les  analogies,"  says  Cuvier.  It  is  true 
that  cay  may  become  tshee, — any  guttural  may  become  any  dental  or  palatal,  (as  j^^  be- 
comes s  in  surgeon,)  but  if  they  were  allied,  te/tee  would  readily  become  cay,  when  some  would 
deem  it  necessary  to  indicate  a  cay  thus  derived,  by  an  underived  tshee  character.  Com- 
pare h^reSis  with  Sp.  herec/ia.  A  prognathic  African  will  convert  wreath  into  reef,  but 
not  the  reverse,  §  301.  Here  there  is  analogy  but  not  affinity  between /and  th.  Stones 
roll  from  mountains  into  valleys,  yet  this  is  no  proof  that  valleys  are  a  kind  of  mountains. 
An  immersed  cork  will  rise,  but  not  because  it  has  an  affinity  with  surface  water. 

.  52.  Those  who  wish  a  tshee  sound  to  be  represented  by  a  guttural  basis,  are  inconsistent, 
having  failed  to  provide  one  (as  j^')  for  sh  in  forms  like  chamois  (from  gems,)  sJierry  (Xeres;) 
¥r.  machine,  chambre,  chien,  chou;  It.  scimia  (simia)  vesdca  (vesica;)  ov  Ft.  j,  in  joug,  jour 
jeune,  manger,  cage  (cavEa,)  orge  (hordEu";)  and  a  different  one  to  indicate  the  common 
change  from  sh  (through  sj)  to  sk  in  skiff,  ship,  which  is  fully  as  important  as  that  from 
g  pure  to  g  corrupt.  Nor  are  the  most  important  and  characteristic  mutations  of  Russian 
and  Polish,  of  Welsh  and  Irish,  or  of  Greek  {xptrij,  xpt'Zut;  Ger.  fraG-en,  ffdZcj,)  deemed 
worthy  pf  special  notation. 

53.  The  use  oftlie  same  base  letter  for  (jrame  and  gem,  and  for  car  and  c/tariot,  to  accom- 
modate Sanscrit  and  other  languages,  really  contradicts  the  principles  of  Sanscrit  ortho- 
graphy, which  does  not  acknowledge  any  affinity  between  these  gutturals  and  palatals,  as 
(using  Eichhoff's  orthography)  in  AG,  or  aj',  (to  move.)  Eichhoff's  roots  268,  kakh  (to 
cry,  to  laugh,)  244,  j'aks  (to  cry,  to  laugh,)  267,  kac'  (to  resound,  to  laugh,)  and  211, 


i!! 


11;; 


20  ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

^uc'  (to  cry,  lament,)  are  essentially  the  same  root;  and  if  the  Hindoos  are  willing  to  spell 
corrupt  dzh,  tsh,  diflferently  from  pure  (jay,  cay,  we  should  not  insist  upon  spelling  them 
on  the  same  basis. 

54.  Many  find  ii  difficult  to  believe  that  numerous  Latin  and  Greek  words  are  older  than 
Sanscrit ;  so  the  scholars  of  our  day  have  formed  a  fictitious  Sanscrit,  as  formerly  a  digam- 
mated  Greek  was  formed,  because  it  was  the  fashion  to  believe  Greek  older  than  Latin, 
ofc  older  than  ovis,  and  the  Sanscrit  root  tshad.  or  tshand  (to  shine)  older  than  Latin 
candeo.  Admitting  the  root  cad  or  cand  in  some  antecedent  of  Sanscrit,  this  does  not 
give  age  enough;  forms  like  nd  not  being  original.  This  cand  is  probably  older  than  cad, 
where  d  has  absorbed  the  n,  and  newer  than  the  probable  true  root  CAN,  from  the  n  of 

which  the  d  oicand  was  educed. 

,.'.■.  Rule  2.  ■■.^^  ■■.■ 

55.  No  letter  nhotdd  represent  moi'e  tJuxn  one  sound. — Latham,  Lepsius. — Hence,  if  t  is 
proper  in  tap,  and  h  in  Juit,  th  cannot  be  used  as  in  t/uit,  three.      ,  ,         ,,   ,  ,  .  ,,    ,  ,  . 

Rule  3.  . 

56.  Sounds  made  by  one  contact  of  the  organs  of  speech,  are  not  to  be  represented  by  a  letter 
made  to  represent  a  sound  belonging  to  a  different  contact. 

56  a.  Hence,  a  pointed  d,  t,  cannot  be  used  for  th  in  then,  thin;  a  pointed  s  for  sJi,  which 
is  often  derived  from  a  guttural,  or  from  sc;  a  pointed  c  for  the  t,  &c.,  in  tip,  sip,  tsip,  ship, 
tship.  In  all  these  cases  this  rule  would  be  broken,  for  th  is  not  the  aspirate  of  t  in  the 
sense  that  Welsh  rh,  ch,  (German  ch,)  are  aspirates  of  r  and  cay.  Th  and  a  have  equal 
claims  to  be  considered  the  aspirate  of  t,  s  being  as  near  the  t  position  posteriorly,  as  *h 
anteriorly. 

57.  Mr.  Hale  in  the  Philology  of  the  U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition,  assigns  Latin  (J)  yea 
to  French  j,  a  corruption  which  shows  little  respect  for  the  purity  of  Latin,  and  which 
would  tend  to  barbariae  it,  to  the  extent  of  its  adoption. 

58.  Sh  is  in  tic  sense  an  aspirate  of  s,  and  as  it  is  perhaps  more  often  derived  from  a 
guttural  than  from  s  or  t,  it  is  a  great  error  to  represent  it  by  a  marked  s.  Indeed,  it 
would  be  more  proper  to  represent  s  by  an  sh  character.  Several  English  alphabets  have 
an  sh  character  made  to  recall  this  combination,  which  is  as  absurd  as  to  let  fhin  spell 
thin,  because  it  is  allowing  an  aspirate  sound  belonging  to  one  contact,  to  be  represented 
by  marking  as  aspirate,  a  known  aspirate  of  the  adjoining  contact. 

Rule  4. 

59.  The  group  of  letters  representing  a  distinct  word  is  to  be  separated  by  spacing  from 

preceding  and  sxjureeding  groups,  and  the  order  of  Latin  typography  is  to  be  preserved. 


ANALYTIC  OHTIIOGRAl'llY. 


21 


59  a.  This  forbids  forms  like  tcould'nt,  &c.,  for  would  ul,  had  ?it,  II,  I  v,  1  in,  you  r, 
IOC  7,  we  r,  he  tf,  t  will,  it  s,  or  t  is,  &c.  French  is  badly  written  on  account  of  this  jumb- 
ling of  the  signs  of  entirely  distinct  words;  writing  as  two,  the  five  words  "qu'  estc'que 
9a,"  instead  of  5  e  «  ^  pa.  "Ah  c'nest  qu'une  peinture"  (Vadc,  2,  111,)  a  s  n  e  q 
une,&,c.  "L'soleil  s'leve  (ib.  p.  18G,)  j'suis,  j'croi8,j'dis."  "  Dans  1*  terns  que  j'l'ecoute," 
p.  21 5.     "  Et  oil  c'qu'est  1'  profit?"  (ib.  3, 193,)  eusqel  profi? 

60.  There  is  no  more  necessity  for  writing  French  j  against  at,  in^  ai  (I  have,)  than  in 
writing  the  English  abbreviation  /thus,  in  lam  or  Im.  The  fact  that  several  words 
may  make  one  syllable,  or  have  but  one  vowel  amongst  them,  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
question.     The  Slavonic  prepositions  o,  w,  z,  are  written  separately,  like  other  words. 

61.  Some  think  that  t  of  tsh,  not  being  quite  the  common  t,  requires  a  tsh  character,  al- 
though this  t  (and  rf  of  c7z/t)  might  be  marked  by  those  who  deem  it  necessary;  but  if  <  in 
tsh  is  drawn  back  to  meet  sh,  this  may  take  place  with  the  final  t  of  one  word,  and  initial 
sh  of  the  next;  and  with  all  coalescing  or  diphthongal  pairs,  giving  to  th6  syllables  coiirt- 
ship  the  sound  of  core  chip;  and  using  the  English  diphthong  oy  in  saying  rapidly  "  the 
law  is  just,"  as  if  "the  7oys  just,"  making  three  syllables  instead  of  four. 

62.  Although  in  Latin  poetry  the  concurrence  of  two  vowels,  as  in  (Virgil,  book  1,  line 
177,)  CEBEALiAQVE  ARMA,  requires  the  first  to  be  rejected,  (making  cerealiaqv  arma,)  yet 
the  measure  may  be  preserved  if  we  allow  a  diphthong  to  be  formed,  as  in  the  same  line, 
where  u  of  undis  may  be  made  the  last  element  of  a  diphthong,  the  initial  of  which  is  na- 
sal A,  the  words  being  corruptA™  Vndis.  Compare  JE  with  a  nasal  A,  in  line  41,  noxA'" 
Et; — EJ,  line  45,  scopuloqvE  Jnfixit; — U'"J,  line  46,  divU'"  Jncedo; — (E,  OJ,  line  48, 
gerO  Et,  or  gerV  Et,  &c. 

BULE  5. 

63.  The  Latin  alphabet  should  be  the  basis,  each  letter  being  used  in  its  Latin  sense,  and  re- 
stricted to  the  sound  it  was  made  for.  Latin  orthography,  as  that  of  an  Indo-European 
language,  exhibits  words  which  still  exist  with  the  Latin  sound.  These,  however  few, 
should  have  the  Latin  spelling,  unless  this  is  inconsistent  with  the  preceding  rules. 


Rule  6. 

64.  When  a  sound  unknown  to  Latin  has  arisen,  it  should  be  provided  with  a  new  or  mo- 
dified cJutracter.  Rules  5  and  6  constitute  the  philosophy  of  notation,  that  alone  by  which 
the  entity,  comparative  physiognomy,  and  history  of  words  can  be  portrayed. 

65.  The  empiric  mode  usurps  Latin  letters  for  barbarian  sounds,  thus  separating  them 
from  the  elements  with  which  they  have  been  associated  from  remote  antiquity. 

66.  Professor  Max  Wilier  would  have  none  but  Latin  letters  used.  This  is  too  stringent 
a  rule,  as  new  letters  should  be  added  where  new  sounds  have  been  added. 

4 


,.^.^£^.<«i&^ 


1 

r 

I'-;-:  ■ 

f 

!  li;-' 

i 

ra 

1      ! 

M 

!         1 

liii ' 

r 

1 

22 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPUT. 


67.  Some  alphahetinta  take  credit  to  themselves  if  their  unhitin  pages  present  a  Latin  ap- 
pearance through  the  misemploy ment  of  Latin  characters  (but  not  letters.)  They  sprinkle 
them  with  the  unlatin,  unitalian,  unspanish  and  unfrench  letter  kd,  pervert  qoo,  made  for 
a  throat  sound,  perhaps  to  represent  wh;  use  the  capital  "A"  in  one  sense  and  the  small 
letter  in  another,  with  perhaps  neither  in  its  Latin  and  Romanic  sense;  use  Teutonic  W 
for  a  Latin  sound  and  its  letter,  and  pervert  Greek  e  and  y  that  they  may  represent  Latin 
sounds  already  represented.     Hence, 

68.  I/ioe  have  no  use /or  certain  cJiaracters,  as  those  o(b,  p,/,  in  some  of  the  American 
languages,  we  can  by  no  means  employ  them  for  new  sounds  unknown  to  Latin,  to  give 
a  deceptive  Latin  page,  or  to  accommodate  a  frontier  printing  office.  Nevertheless,  to  use 
the  b  character  for  an  aspirate  of  m,  and  the  /  for  English  wh,  would  be  trivial  errors  when 
compared  with  the  perversion  of  c  for  English  sh. 

69.  Dr.  Latham's  second  rule  (English  Language,  1841,  Chap.  IX.)  should  be  remem- 
bered in  forming  new  characters,  and  especially  in  the  appHcation  of  diacritic  marks.  It 
requires  "  That  sounds  within  a  determined  degree  of  likeness,  be  represented  by  signs 
within  a  determined  degree  of  likeness;  whilst  sounds  beyond  a  certain  degree  of  likeness, 
be  represented  by  distinct  and  different  signs,  and  that  uniformly." 

70.  Examples  of  allied  letters  for  allied  sounds  occur  in  the  Latin  CG,  IJ,  UV,  bp,  PP,  fj. 
Greek  has  J  d,  and  its  liquid  A  I;  a  dot  over  Arabic  r  makes  English  z;  in  Persian  arrow- 
head, aleph  and  ain,  and  also  r  and  a  variety  of  z,  are  distinguished  by  the  position  of  a 
wedge  on  the  left  or  right;  Sanscrit  from  b  forms  (English)  to,  and  p-h  from  jp;  but  t,  t-h, 
d,  d-h,  are  quite  dissimilar.  In  Thibetian,  the  affinity  is  exhibited  between  6,  p,  ph;  t,  d 
(but  not  th;)  and  </,  k,  (but  not  kh.) 

71.  Welsh  liad  a  philosophic  alphabet  before  the  invention  of  printing,  for  the  representa- 
tion of  the  mutes  and  their  phases,  and  based  upon  the  Boman  letters  as  follows : — 


V   b 

>   d 

(, 

9<^y 

b  V 

t>  dh 

{wanting.) 

^  P 

t    t 

< 

cay 

f  f 

fl   th 

K 

ch 

W  m 

^  n 

9 

ng 

Here  m  is  acknowledged  as  a  nasal  5,  n  as  a  nasal  d,  and  perhaps  ti^  as  a  nasal  gay.  As- 
piration is  indicated  by  a  line,  which  on  the  left  of  the  gay  character,  would  have  given 
it  the  sound  heard  in  Belgian,  and  as  this  is  wanting,  the  laws  of  permutation  which 
would  place  it  in  a  word,  cannot  bring  it  forward.  Hence  gafr  (Latin  caper  a  goat)  be- 
comes dy  afr  (thy  goat)  instead  oidy  ghafr—i\iQ  analogous  form. 


ANALYTIC  ORTUOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  TIL 


■      "  •  ALPHABETS,   PICTORIAL,   PHILOSOPHIC,   AND  CONVENTIONAL.       > 

....  o'o.Ht  quel'pcriture  est  iin  ouvrn<;c  encore  bien  itnpnrfait  dcs  hommcs,  et  quo  la  parule  est  une  ctoUion  de  la  na- 
ture.— Olivier,  Des  Sons  de  la  Parole,  Paris,  1844. 

§  72.  It  is  agreed  thai  the  diverse  Latin,  Greek  and  Hebrew  alphabets  have  been  derived 
from  the  Phenician,  and  that  the  earliest  form  of  this  was  hieroglyphic,  each  letter  bciii}^ 
the  picture  of  an  object  whose  name  commenced  with  its  power.  The  letter  Qoo  pictured 
the  human  head  and  neck,  the  neck  being  made  as  a  vertical  line  below,  until  writing 
in  tw^o  directions  threw  it  1o  the  right  (q,  q,)  or  ( p )  left.  R  was  a  side  face  looking  to  the 
right,  the  tail  representing  the  beard;  but,  as  this  was  sometimes  omitted,  we  find  that 
r  has  two  forms  (R,  P,)  in  different  Greek  inscriptions. 

73.  The  earlier  form  (t  )  of  the  Hebrew  j  gimel  represented  the  head  and  neck  of  a 
camel  (Hebrew  gamal)  looking  towards  the  left,  the  direction  of  Hebrew,  Etruscan,  and 
some  Greek  writing;  whilst  the  Greek  ( F)  gamma  represented  it  looking  towards  the  right. 
One  of  the  forms  (  <  )  of  this  becjvme  rounded  into  Latin  Cay,  acquiring  a  new  power  as 
readily  as  the  word  acquired  initial  cay  in  the  Latin  camelus,  ah  in  the  French  cJiameau, 
and  c?2/i  in  Arabic.    Hence, 

74.  There  are  several  objections  to  hieroglyphs.  Every  language  would  require  a  different 
set  of  symbols;  the  symbols  for  allied  sounds  would  be  dissimilar,  and  the  power  of  the 
characters  would  vary  with  the  name  of  the  objects  represented,  until  variations  in  the 
written  forms  would  cause  the  originals  to  be  forgotten,  so  that  instead  of  more  accurate 
pictures  of  an  ox,  a  house,  a  camel  or  cynocephaltis,  and  a  door,  we  should  find  the  apparently 
conventional  figures  a,b,c,d. 

75.  Hieroglyphic  or  picture  alphabets  would  be  readily  suggested  at  the  invention  of 
writing,  and  they  are  more  easily  learned  and  remembered  than  any  other  kind.  On  this 
account,  a  French  hieroglyphic  alphabet  has  been  proposed — Lea  Hieroglyphea  Fran^ais, 
par  C.  Chesnier,  Paris,  1843,  in  which  a  pointing  finger  (i/i-dex,)  stands  for  the  nasal 
vowel  in,  an  aw-gel  for  an,  the  numeral  1  for  un,  a  pink  (oeillet)  for  short  eu,  a  sword 
(epee)  for  the  vowel  of  fate,  a  hatchet  for  short  a,  the  head  of  an  ass  for  a,  a  pipe  for  p, 
and  a  bomb  for  b,  &c.,  with  symbols  for  hi,  pi,  cr,  &c.,  requiring  fifty-five  characters  for  the 
French  language.* 

*  It  is  applied  to  foreign  languages  in  the  most  perverse  manner,  the  aspirate  of  the  Spanish  word  evangelicot 
being  given  as  English  gsh  (in  egg-shell,)  and  the  nasal  an  is  placed  in  tanto,  and  in  the  Greek  amphi.  In 
Italian,  French  na^al  in  is  placed  in  denti,  esempio,  and  nasal  on  in  contare.     In  English,  the  same  vowel  is  assigned 


f? 


Hi! 


}iii:.| 

♦^•■1 


m 


|2j|  analytic  ORTIIOGKAPIIY. 

70.  Fif/iircn  r/  ffte  oryans  of  speeth,  either  pictorial  or  mnemonic,  must  have  attracted 
attention  at  an  early  period;  and  it  is  probable,  that  when  the  knowledge  of  the  hiero- 
glyphic origin  of  the  common  alphabet  was  lost,  the  form  of  the  letters  was  influenced  by 
tlie  position  of  the  vocal  organs,  as  in  figuring  the  closed  lips  in  B,  and  their  circularity 
in  0.  Pownal  (Study  of  Antiquities)  accounts  for  the  vowel  characters  in  this  manner. 
I  (in  marine)  would  represent  the  linear  aperture,  the  figure  being  turned  to  range  with 
other  letters.  A  (in  Arm)  would  represent  the  mouth  well  opened.  T  might  figure  the 
tongue  rising  against  the  palate;  0  the  tongue  forming  an  obstruction  in  the  middle  of  the 
mouth;  ^  a  similar  obstruction  by  the  two  lips,  but  with  a  vertical  line  to  distinguish  it 
from  0.  The  middle  line  of  E  (in  vEin)  was  originally  as  long  as  the  others,  and  might 
represent  an  opening  of  the  mouth  nearly  as  narrow  as  that  of  I.  H  was  much  like  E, 
being  a  square  with  a  horizontal  medial  line,  and  in  some  Greek  inscriptions,  the  character 
H  represents  the  consonant  h,  in  others  the  vowel  e. 

77.  Such  a  6yetem  is  impracticable  from  the  difficulty  of  figuring  the  position  of  the  in- 
ner organs;  and  as  the  number  of  essentially  distinct  elements  is  not  great,  a  pictorial  re- 
presentation of  them  would  be  as  little  worthy  of  attention  as  a  proposal  to  use  the  sign 
III  instead  of  the  numeral  3  in  arithmetical  processes,  as  being  more  suggestive  of  three. 

78.  An  anonymous  author  issued  a  sheet  from  Lockport,  New  York,  in  1853,  proposing 
a  set  of  characters  to  indicate  the  organs.  Here  b  is  h,  its  reversal  a  (with  the  apex  of 
the  semicircles  angular)  makes p,  and  a  (with  the  curve  angular)  is/,  the  base  represent- 
ing the  lip  and  the  top  the  teeth.  This  reversed,  or  facing  to  the  right,  is  v;  a  character 
like  m  (with  the  left  side  rounded  like  the  right)  is  m,  and  w  when  inverted,  leaving  Eng- 
lish wh,  German  w  and  Greek  (p  unrepresented.  D  i»  taken  as  the  base  of  the  dental  let- 
ters, the  curve  being  the  palate  and  the  stem  the  tongue.  Yet,  whilst  w  is  a  nasal  d  (as 
7n  is  a  nasal  h)  the  first  and  second  lines  of  N  are  assumed  to  represent  the  nose,  and  the 
third  line  the  tongue. 

79.  A  philosophic  alphabet  would  represent  the  same  phase  of  Bjjeec*.  in  the  same  man- 
ner, arid  A.  D.  Sproat  has  endeavoured  to  accomplish  this,  as  in  i  i,  i.  d,  ^  n,  t  th. 
Here  the  base  line  indicates  vocality,  the  angular  one  aspiration,  and  the  medial  one  na- 
sality ;  but  the  n  is  discrepant,  it  represents  a  surd  »,  it  wants  the  base  line  to  make  it  in- 
dicate the  common  sonant  n.    This  system  has  a  shorthand  form. 

80.  Htman'e  Phonography  has  a  philosophic  basis,  as  far  as  this  is  compatible  with  rapid 

to /or,  of,  none;  men  is  men  (mane,)  have  is  ^v,  and  has  nasal  in,  Imth  is  §s,  the  has  French  z;  despised  is  des- 
pa-ist,  with  pure  st;  others  in  French  orthography  would  be  itzzoeurss,  and  Goldsmith  and  GBthe  ought  to  have 
spelt  their  names  Golshmeet  and  Got.  In  German,  ench  is  made  up  of  short  French  a,  long  au,  and  French  ch  or 
English  sh;  zu  is  made  (in  French  spelling)  the  impossible  tzou;  German,  English,  and  Greek  initial  h  is  silenced, 
and  Greek  9  x  are  turned  into  k,  t. 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


25 


writing,  and  it  might  perhaps  be  adapted  to  print.*  But  as  it  is  an  essential  feature  of 
shorthand,  that  every  available  sign  shall  be  employed,  that  for  English  th  would  be  as- 
signed to  some  other  sound  in  a  language  without  this  lisp,  which  would  destroy  the  uni- 
formity of  notation  between  different  languages. 

81.  Script  and  print  are  eesentiaVy  different  in  this,  that  as  facility  in  execution  must  be 
a  primary  object  in  writing,  the  most  complicated  character  can  be  printed  with  the  same 
ease  as  the  simplest  one.  But,  notwithstanding  this  feature,  a  uniform  notation  for  writing 
and  print  is  perhaps  desirable.  The  two  kinds  of  common  print,  roman  and  italic,  are 
copied  after  manuscripts,  and  the  forms  of  written  and  printed  Greek  do  not  differ. 

82.  The  Cosmo8ph(»iography  of  Gouraudf  is  an  attempt  to  construct  a  condensed  writing 
character,  which  may  be  printed  with  separate  types,  specimens  of  which  he  gives.  The 
author  is  said  to  have  been  a  fluent  lecturer  in  French,  Spanish  and  English,  but  he  has 
made  no  critical  observations  on  pronunciation.^ 

83.  Of  conventional  alpliuhete,  the  Cherokee  is  a  good  example.  Sequoyah  the  inventor 
had  a  book  in  the  European  characters,  which,  as  he  inferred  or  was  informed,  conveyed 
intelligence,  but  in  a  mode  as  obscure  to  him  as  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphs  to  father  Kir- 


*  Henry  M.  Parkburst  (Ploughshare,  Washington,  June,  1853,)  has  proposed  such  a  "Gosmophonetio  Alpha- 
bet." His  alphabet  is  inconsistent;  because,  for  example,  surd  and  sonant  marks  were  deemed  necessary  for  j),  h, 
but  not  for  w,  m. 

f  Practical  Gosmophonography :  a  system  of  writing  and  printing  all  the  different  languages,  with  their  exact 
pronunciation,  by  means  of  an  original  Universal  Phonetic  Alphabet,  based  upon  Philological  Principles,  and  re- 
presenting analogically  all  the  Goniponent  Elements  of  the  Human  Voice,  as  they  occur  in  Different  Tongues  and 
Dialects :  and  applicable  to  daily  use  in  all  the  branches  of  business  and  learning,  illustrated  by  numerous  plates, 
explanatory  of  the  calligraphic,  steno-phonographic,  and  typo-phonographic  adaptations  of  the  system ;  with  speci- 
mens of  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  one  hundred  languages;  to  which  is  pretixed  a  General  Introduction,  elucidating  the 
origin  and  progress  of  Language,  Writing,  Stenography,  Phonography,  etc,  etc.,  etc.,  by  Francis  Fauvel  Gouraud, 
D.  E.  S.,  of  the  Royal  University  of  France,  New  York,  1850. 

\  In  his  opinion  (p.  76,)  there  is  an  "absolute  identity"  between  the  English  an,  1-en-t,  f-on-t,  s-un-k,  and  the 
French  nasal  vowels  an,  in,  on,  un,  respectively.  He  assigns  the  C'eltic  vowel  mfat,  to  French,  German,  Ita- 
lian, &c.,  and  he  considers  the  English  ou  in  fount  to  be  the  vowels  in  nor  and  put.  He  says  of  the  French  vowel 
in  peu,  vaeu,  that  it  is  "  a  sound  which  the  English  learners  of  that  language  generally  think  so  difficult  to  pro- 
nounce, although  they  use  it  a  hundred  times  a  day."  He  assigns  the  French  vowel  in  caur  to  English  cur,  and 
finds  French  u  in  rapturous.  The  numerous  versions  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  are  given  in  their  peculiar  orthography, 
without  pronunciation  or  translation,  so  that  such  series  of  Chinese  or  Cherokee  characters  must  be  useless  to  the 
great  mass,  even  of  philologists.  No.  33  is  a  specimen  of  "  Gothic"  in  Gothic  characters,  with  some  of  the  words 
improperly  divided;  No.  61  is  "Mceso-Gotbio"  in  Koman  letters,  being  the  same  thing.  The  latter  is  credited  to 
Ulphilas,  the  former,  in  the  Ulphilas  character,  to  Stjernhjelm,  who  gives  a  plato  of  it  in  his  version  of  1671. 
The  foreign  alphabets  are  in  bad,  and  often  inaccurate  lithography.  Some  of  the  versions  commence  with  the 
prayer,  as  the  Hebrew,  Irish,  Armorican,  and  Croatian ;  others  commence  with  the  verse  (Matthew  vi.  9,)  as 
Gaelic,  Welsh,  llussian,  and  Cherokee,  so  that  comparisons  may  be  thwarted  at  the  oommencement. 


LiM^-  ^v-v^m*  til  fmrm 


26 


ANALYTIC  ORTnOGRAPnY. 


:  Ifil 


cher  or  the  characters  on  a  tea-chest  to  a  London  grocer.  He  used  them  in  a  syllabic 
sense,  varying  their  forms,  and  adding  others  to  complete  the  number  eighty-five.  Here 
K  became  tso,  and  J  coo,  which  latter  is  not  so  bad  as  making  it  zh  or  dzh.  The  second 
and  fifteenth  word  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  Cherokee,  is,  in  French  orthography — ca-l'un- 
la-ii,  (heaven,)  but  with  German  flat  k  and  t,  the  last  vowel  as  in  English  pit,  accented, 
the  o  in  art,  and  the  second  syllable  exactly  the  French  Vun  (the  one.)  In  Gouraud's 
Transcript,  No.  30,  this  word  stands  first  in  the  third  line;  and  the  third  from  the  end  of 
the  first  line.    The  characters  are  read  towards  the  right. 

84.  Although  the  Cherokee  alphabet  is  syllabic,  beginning  with  a  consonant,  as  lo,  tlo,  tso, 
a  word  may  begin  with  a  vowel,  so  that  there  are  vowel  characters,  as  d  in  arm,  r  in 
yeva,  t  in  field,  &c.,  and  this  being  the  case,  it  may  seem  singular  that  the  inventor  did 
not  fall  upon  a  strictly  alphabetic  notation,  seeing  that,  when  writing  W  la,  d  le  {lay,)  r 
li  (lee,)  M  lu  (too,)  he  might  have  used  wd,  ^d,  or  rD,  for  la;  wr,  &c.,  for  lay;  and  wt,  &c., 
for  lee. 

85.  But  there  ia  a  great  difficulty  in  getting  an  abstract  idea  of  a  consonant,  as  distinct 
from  a  syllable.  The  con-sonant  'P'  is  nothing  when  alone^  'L'  is  something.  But  pa 
and  la  are  alike  in  termination,  with  an  initial  difference.  Their  notation  must  be  ana- 
logous, and  if  syllabic,  it  can  be  appreciated.  But  if  the  initial  and  final  effect  of  la  have 
each  a  character  for  the  sounds  which  are  so  readily  appreciated,  pa  must  have  the  same 
a  final,  whilst  it  has  nothing  corresponding  to  I  in  the  sense  of  an  element  which  can  be 
pronounced  independently.  The  p'  o£pa  cannot  be  detached  from  a,  it  is  a  nullity  with- 
out it,  pa  must  therefore  have  a  single  character,  and  if  pa,  so  also  la. 

86.  The  same  course  of  reasoning  perhaps,  causes  Dr.  Lepsius  to  assign  single  characters 
to  the  Hottentot  clacks,  which  are  made  with  a  consonant  position  followed  by  a  vowel  po- 
sition of  the  organs; — to  term  m,  h,p,  equally  explosives;  and  in  fact,  m  is  whatever  h 
is,  with  nasality  added,  differing  as  a  nasal  vowel  differs  from  a  pure  one.  If  then,  h  is 
an  explosive,  so  is  m,  and  if  m  is  not  explosive  (and  it  is  not)  neither  are  h,  p. 

87.  Those  who  term  P  an  explosive,  take  the  Tsa-la-ki  view,  mistaking  two  phenomena 
for  one.  P  may  be  compared  to  a  gate  in  a  water  course:  if  quite  open,  the  water  flows 
like  a  vowel  sound,  if  let  down  nearly  close,  the  flow  may  resemble  that  of /or  th;  if  closed 
entirely,  or  closed  or  opened  suddenly,  the  gate  acts  like  P  on  the  current  of  the  voice 
or  breath,  or  like  B,  should  the  water  continue  to  gurgle  and  dam  up  behind  the  obstruc- 
tion; or  like  M,  should  the  stream  flow  over  the  gate,  or  find  a  side  passage;  and  when 
the  stream  issues  suddenly,  in  an  "explosive"  manner,  it  is  the  current,  not  the  gate  or 
obstruction,  which  is  explosive. 


/■ 


ANALYTIC  ORTIlOGRAPnr. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE   LATIN   ALPHABET. 

At  present,  ancient  Latiu  usages  are  the  only  feasible  basis  for  an  alphabet  that  the  learned  in  all  nations  can  use ;  the 
letters,  as  far  as  possible,  having  their  ancient'  Latin  values. — FAlh,  Universal  Writing  and  Printing,  Edinburg,  1856. 

J!ho  life  of  all  language  is  pronuntiation. — Rogtr  WUliama,  Key  into  the  Languages  of  America,  London,  1043. 

La  prononoiation  est  la  chose  la  plus  importanto  dans  r6tudo  d'une  langue  ....  La  prononciation  est  ii  une  languo  ce 
que  les  couleurs  sent  aus  figures  d'un  tableau. — Robello,  Orammaire  Italienne. 

it  will  be  found  upon  critical  and  candid  inquiry,  that  much,  which  at  first  sight  strikes  us  as  barbarous,  is  only 

ancient. — Pennington,  An  Essay  on  the  Pronunciation  of  the  Qreeli  Language,  London,  1844. 

§  88.  Moat  of  the  languages  of  Europe  for  which  the  Roman  character  is  used,  preserve 
the  original  power,  except  that  the  greater  number  of  sounds  in  some  of  the  modern  lan- 
guages prevents  each  of  the  characters  from  being  restricted  to  a  single  power. 

89.  The  cJuiractera  of  the  Latin  Alphabet  are  the  tioenty  following: — A,  b,  C,  d,  e,  p,  G, 
H,  I,  L,  M,  N,  o,  p,  Q,  K,  s,  T,  V,  X;  and  of  these,  nhie  had  the  same  power  as  in  English, 
namely:  b,  d,  p,  h,  N,  p,  Q,  t,  x. 

90.  The  names  of  the  letters,  according  to  the  ancient  grammarians  (Schneider's  Gram- 
matik,  Berlin,  1819,  p.  2,)  are,  for  the  vowels,  their  power,  and  for  the  consonants,  the 
following  syllables,  given  in  English  spelling, — bay,  cay,  day,  aif,  gay,  hah,  ail,  aim,  ain, 
pay,  coo,  air,  ace,  tay;  to  which  Schneider  adds  leah,  and  I  consonant,  V  consonant,  these 
being  called  by  Eichhoff  (in  English  spelling)  yee,  and  way.  Sometimes  Greek  K  was 
used  in  writing  calendae;  and  t,  z,  appeared  in  unnaturalised  Greek  words,  with  their 
Greek  power  of  French  M,  and  English  2!<i. 

91.  In  modem  hooks  when  I  would  have  its  consonant  power  of  English  y,  it  is  some- 
times varied  to  J ;  and  V  oo  is  sometimes  rounded  for  a  vowel,  and  left  angular  for  its  con- 
sonant power  of  English  tc.* 

92.  The  Latin  Vowels  are  long  (marked  ", )  and  short  (marked  ", )  the  short  ones  having 
th^  same  quality  as  the  long  ones,  with  but  half  their  length.  Some  words  are  long  or 
short  according  to  the  usage  of  the  poets. 

93.  The  power  and  name  of  the  Latin  vowels  are  always  as  in  the  following  English 
words — 

*  For  example — "de  bonis  literarvm  graecarvm  tvm  oenvinis  tvm  adoptivib  libri  dvo  avctore  uvsta- 
VO  8EYPFARTH0," — etc.  Lipsiae,  1824.  This  author  uses  the  spellings — vt,  huius,  quamuis,  inuita,  leue,  diuersa, 
subiecta,  vera,  prouocari,  obiioere,  &c. 


28 


ANALYTIC  OBTHOORAPUy. 


A*  lonff  ill  arm,  ohort  in  ftrt,  never  ns  in  at 


E 

a 

vein,     " 

eight    " 

*hb 

I 

« 

field,    " 

deceit,  " 

U 

0 

« 

oh,       " 

obey     " 

ox 

V 

« 

fool,     " 

full,      « 

up 

94.  Their  power  is  the  name  in  the  diphthoiigft,  except  that  the  Hecond  element  is  slightly 
varied  to  make  them  pronounceable  in  a  single  syllable;  for,  as  Prisi''ian,  the  chief  of  the 
ancient  grammarians,  says — "A  diphthong  is  a  union  of  two  voxels,  both  of  which  are 
Bounded."f  Thus  JE  is  ei/e,  the  Greek  AI,  sometimes  seen  in  Latin  and  occurring  with 
it  in  an  inscription  (No.  XI.)  in  the  Capitol  at  Rome,  where  the  consecutive  words  occur — 
VEBNAE  KARissiMAi  SVAE.  (E  is  Very  like  o-i  in  going,  showy,  and  the  Portuguese  (ETO 
(or  oito)  eight;  EI  or  EJ  nearly  as  in  prcymg,  Bohemian  ei/,  or  Spanish  lei/  (law,)  AV 
or  AU  are  like  ou  in  out,  or  Danish  AV  in  H AVN  (rhyming  with  totim)  a  haven.  If,  there- 
fore, hound  were  a  Latin  or  Danish  word,  it  would  havf^  the  (only  correct)  orthography — 
''havnd."  AU  has  its  Latin  sound  in  most  of  the  modern  languages;  JE  and  (E  (or  oi) 
in  Portuguese,  as  in  "  Shanghae"  (-high,)  the  orthography  of  which  is  due  to  the  Portuguese 
navigators. 

95.  The  terminations  am,  em,  &c.,  are  nasal  vowels,  as  in  French  and  Portuguese,  no 
final  m  being  heard  even,  when  the  next  word  begins  with  a  vowel,  where  it  would  be 
heard  in  French.     The  quality  of  the  nasal  vowel  is  that  of  its  pure  form  (as  far  as  we 

*  A  in  arm,  because  according  to  the  ancient  grammarian$,  it  must  be  made  with  the  mouth  gaping  or  ex- 
pandingj  uiatu  obis  os  described  by  Marcianus  Capella,  and  rictu  patulo  in  the  verse  of  Terentianus  (Maurus) 
and  the  prose  of  Victorianus  (Afer^)  or  like  the  Greek  A,  which,  according  to  Dionysiua  of  HalicamasBus,  was 
made  with  the  mouth  open  as  much  as  possible. 

"  The  E  which  follows,  is  formed  by  reducing  a  little  the  aperture  of  the  mouth,  and  drawing  the  lips  inwards," 
that  is,  in  comparison  with  Ah,  which  he  had  just  described. —  Victorianua. 
.  I — «  Xhe  mouth  half  closed,  and  the  tongue  lightly  touching  the  teeth,  gives  the  sound." —  Victorianui. 

0  short  "is  pronounced  with  a  not  great  opening  of  the  lips,  and  with  the  tongue  held  back;  but  the  long 
one  pronounced,  will  give  a  tragic  sound  from  the  produced  lips  (productis  labiis)  and  rounded  mouth  (aiCTU 
TERETi,  slender. cavity  of  the  entire  mout!h?)  the  tongue  detached  from  the  palate."^  Viclorianm. 

V — "  Whenever  we  pronounce  this  letter,  we  will  emit  it  with  lengthened  and  converging  lips." —  Victorianus. 

y — **  Whenever  we  prepare  to  emit  this  sound,  we  will  endeavor  to  utter  0,  and  thus  the  sound  will  be  pro- 
duced, but  with  lengthened  and  converging  lips." — Terentianus. 

"  V  is  formed  by  constricting  the  mouth  and  projecting  the  lips  a  little." — Marcianus  Capella. 

t  DiPHTHONOI  AVTEM  DICUNTXIR  QVOD  BINDS  PHTHONOOS,  HOC  EST  VOCES  OOMPREHENDUNT,  NAM  BINOCLAI! 

VOOALES  SUAS  VOCES  HABENT.  See  Haldeman's  Latin  Pronunciation,  Philadelphia,  1851,  p.  28  and  69.  When 
barbarians  prepare  their  so-called  "Latin  Grammars,"  without  consulting  Priscnian,  we  need  not  wonder  that  so 
many  of  them  do  not  know  the  difference  between  a  diphthong  and  a  vowel,  or  consonant  and  vowel  combinations 
like  VA  in  qvare.  This  is  not  a  criticism  upon  their  conventional  pronunciation,  but  upon  their  definitions, 
which  assign  to  "JE"  a  single  sound  and  call  it  (di-phthong)  (wo  sounds,  and  to  "I"  two  sounds,  but  czilling  it  a 
(vowel)  single  sound. 


ANALYTIC  ORTnOGBAPIIY. 


know,)  SO  thnt  im  is  not  to  bo  read  in  the  French  manner,  with  the  vowel  o(/at  nosalieod 
(as  in  vin  whie)  but  with  that  of  field,  said  to  occur  in  the  Portuguese  im. 

06.  Cay  m  always  Kin  Latin  (according  to  Latin  authority,)  as  in  Anglish,  old  high 
German  (which  also  uses  k,)  Welsh,  Irish,  and  Gaelic*  Hence,  to  confound  the  proper 
names  ctrus  and  syrus  (except  perhops  as  English  words,)  or  the  Anglish  cing  (a  king) 
with  sing,  is  like  saying  sea  for  key  and  septic  for  sceptic  Gay  is  always  as  in  give,  get, 
never  as  in  gipsy,  gem,  or  as  in  French. 

97.  H  is  never  sikni,  even  in  the  interjection  on,  corresponding  to  the  German  arh,  Irish 

ocli,  &c.  In  representing  certain  Greek  sounds,  n  is  used  after  c,  r,  r,  t,  to  indicate  their 
aspiration — a  mode  of  writing  which  (except  for  Th,)  was  originally  Greek.  In  some  Latin 
inscriptions,  the  single  elements  x,  &nd  0  are  represented  by  H  deprived  of  its  first  ver- 
tical line,  and  united  into  a  single  character  with  C  and  P. 

98.  J,  cw  in  German,  Belgian,  Polish,  &c.,  or  English  y  in  yet,  yettr,  never  as  in  Jet,  Jeer, 
or  as  in  French. 

99.  L,  according  to  Victorinus,  is  made  with  the  tongue  and  palate  at  the  base  of  the 
upper  teeth,  which  answers  sufliciently  to  our  I.  But  Prisc^an  assigns  three  powers  to 
the  Latin  letter,  one  of  which  may  have  been  the  Polish  variety. 

100.  M  08  in  man,  hut  when  Jinal,  as  in  the  Portuguese  hom,  French  hon  (good)  even 
when  the  next  word  begins  with  a  vowel.  N  never  indicates  nasality,  although  Chavee 
(Lexiologie  ludo-Europ^enne,  Paris,  1849,  p.  22,)  asserts  that  it  does  in  Greek,  but  appa- 
rently without  any  ancient  authority. 

101.  N  /tow  tvx)  powers,  the  first  in  no,  the  second  in  angle.  The  latter  occurs  in  all 
cases  before  c,  6,  x,  q,  where  it  was  called  n  adulterinum  or  impure.  Nigidius  Figulus, 
cites  for  it  words  like  incurrit  and  ingenuus,  where  English  practice  would  place  pure  n. 

102.  Qis  a  duplicate  of  Cay,  and  indicates  that  the  V  oo  which  follows  it  has  the  con- 
sonant power  in  toell,  and  not  the  vowel  power  in  ooze. 

103.  R  requires  to  he  trilled. 

104.  S  has  its  Spanish  power,  as  in  hiss,  not  that  in  rose,  miser,  sure.  Its  power  in  miser 
occurs  in  Italian,  German,  and  French,  but  not  in  Spanish. 

105.  T  as  in  tun,  never  as  «  in  the  French  na-ti-on,  nor  sJi  in  the  English  na-tion,  nor 
ts  in  the  German  na-ti-on. 

106.  V  when  a  consonant,  always  as  English  w.  (See  §  93  note  on  V.)  This  is  the 
opinion  of  Bentley,  Pennington,  Key  (Penny  Cyc.,)  John  Jackson  (Chronological  An- 

'I'  Among  the  iDsoriptiona  of  tbe  Vatican,  we  observed  the  name  Eutychia  in  one  place  aa  svttgia  in  Latin 
letters;  and  the  Latin  words  in  pace  borrowed  in  a  Greek  inscription  under  the  form  ENIIAXH,  as  one  word. 

5 


!    ! 


\\ 


80 


ANALYTIC  OKTHOGBAPUy. 


tiquitics,  London,  1752,)  Payno  Knight,  Rapp,  Eichhoff,  Webster,  Chavee,  DonaldBon, 
the  author  of  "Living  Lfttin,"  London,  1847,  ond  Prof.  John  F.  Richardson,  (Roman 
Orthoepy,  New  York,  1859.)  Tiio  Rev.  Henry  Thomson  (Encyc.  Metropolitana)  says, 
"There  is  no  evidence  whatever  that  the  Digamma  or  the  Latin  V  was  thus  pronounced," 
that  is,  as  English  w.  On  the  contrary,  there  is  no  evidence  that  English  v  was  known 
to  the  Roman  grammarians;  it  is  a  vocal  /,  yet  /  is  the  only  element  described  as  being 
made  by  the  contact  of  the  loioer  Up  and  upper  teeth.  (See  the  descriptions  of  Terentianus, 
Victorinus,  and  Capella.) 

107.  X  as  va  (sometimes  as  ga,  not  yz,)  even  when  initial. 

108.  In  Liitm  and  Italian  there  are  double  consonants,  both  of  which  must  be  pro- 
nounced. Thus  the  //  in  allcgoria  are  to  be  sounded  like  ll-l  in  all-loving;  nn  in  penna 
(a  feather)  as  in  the  Italian  Gio-van-ni  (John.)  Thia  ia  entirely  dijbrent  frdm  the  im- 
proper use  of  doubled  characters  in  German,  French  and  English,  to  indicate  etymology, 
the  shortness  of  a  preceding  vowel,  or  the  quality  of  a  sound. 

HEBREW   IN   LATIN   LETTERS.  ■ 

109.  Tlie  powers  oftlve  Hebrew  letters  agree  very  well  with  those  of  Latin  as  given  here, 
so  that  in  general,  a  proper  name  will  have  the  same  sound  if  read  in  Hebrew  or  Latin, 
that  is,  when  the  same  sounds  exist  in  both  languages.  Latin  could  not  represent  He- 
brew aldn,  (English  ah,)  and  took  s  instead,  and  English  commonly  follows  Latin,  but 
sometimes  takes  ah  directly  from  the  Hebrew.  Neither  Latin,  Greek,  nor  English  takes 
the  Hebrew,  archaic  Greek,  and  perhaps  archaic  Latin  Q,  which  represents  a  glottal  k  in 
Hebrew  and  its  cognates.  The  use  of  this  would  have  made  the  etymologic  part  of  the 
transliteration  more  consistent. 

110.  Tlie  following  Jiave  Q  in  the  original — Qsmuel,  amaleq',  Isaaq,  Jaqob  (with  Eng- 
lish 1/f)  Joqshan,  Qa-in  (Cain,  a  dissyllable,)  Qadesh,  Qlrjath,  (English  y.) 

111.  As  examples  of  the  vowela,  we  have  forms  like  Seir,  S''aul,  Sodom,  Edom,  Nod, 
Ammon,  Enoch,  Enos,  Nimrod,  Simeon,  Lot,  Magog,  Rehoboth,  Ashteroth,  Ludum,  Ltlz, 
Shur,  Buz,  Judith  (Eng.  y,)  Reuben,  Bethel  (not  bf-thfl,)  Bethuel,  Rachel,  Joseph  (Eng. 
y,)  Beeri,  Bfersheba,  Adbeel,  Magdiel,  Tarshlsh,  Dan,  Gad. 

112.  V  atandafar  Engliahw  in  Levi,  Javan  (Eng.  y,)  Arvadite,  Nineveh. 

113.  H  aa  a  final  consonant  occurs  in  Noah  (whence  the  adjective  Noachian,)  Nineveh, 
Gomorrah,  Sarah,  Rebeqah,  Milcah,  Machpelah;  but  not  in  Abidah,  which  ends  with  a. 
A  different  aspirate  (the  eighth  Hebrew  letter,)  occurs  in  Hebron,  Heth,  Zohar,  Gaham, 
Nahor. 


ANALYTIC  ORTIIOGRAI'IIY. 


CHAPTER  V. 


TUE  GREEK    ALPUADET. 

It  is  clear  therefore,  that  n  uniform  system  of  Greek  pronunointioii  in  needed ;  and  tlie  truth  uf  tliis  pniition  vcrv  few 
sohuliiri  will  quoition.  Such  a  Rystom  independently  of  its  RiriuK  iiulividunlity  to  n  langungo— a  oircuniNtnnoo  liy  no 
means  to  be  overloolced, — will  put  the  (Ircek  on  the  same  footing  with  the  Hebrew,  which  no  imo  hits  yot  seriously  nt- 
tempted  to  rend  nfter  the  annlony  of  nny  of  the  modern  lunBunKtw  of  Europe. —  K.  A.  Soi-uon.Ex,  History  of  the  Ori'ok 
Alplmbet.     Cambridge  ond  Boston,  U.  ».  A.  First  Edition,  1848,  |>.  v.,  2d  ed.  1854. 


{114.  Figure, 

Name, 

Power, 

As  in 

Figure, 

nnme, 

power, 

as  io 

Aa 

dlifa 

a 

arm  art. 

^     Nu 

w 

n 

noon. 

/ts(i 

(ir^ra 

b 

6ay. 

,     '    s$ 

Vi 

C8 

axis. 

rrr 

rd/t/M 

g.ng 

ginng. 

;      Oo 

S  /tixndv 

0 

obey. 

jd 

diha 

d 

deW. 

II  n  vi 

JTl 

P 

pea. 

lit 

i  ^^r;6J/ 

e 

epsom. 

f'i>m 

fxo 

[rh 

as  in  Welsh.] 

^: 

Cr;r« 

zd 

visJom. 

2'  «T  c 

atY/m 

«eek. 

.    tt^ 

^ra 

e 

there. 

>        7'r7 

Ta'j 

<ower. 

edd 

Orjta 

th 

thin. 

r    y 

5  i/'tXov 

[Danish  y.] 

It 

ttOTd 

i 

field. 

0  ^^ 

<pt 

ph 

Kx 

xdnna 

0 

cap. 

^t 

X' 

ch 

[Qertnan.] 

AX 

Xdfijida 

1 

hmh. 

,;               ^V^^ 

4n 

p8, 

bs, 

ecli/>«e,  ro6«on. 

'       M  fi 

/fj 

m 

moon. 

Qoi 

(L  /tiya 

u 

own. 

114a.  Ov,  01),  «,  properly  a  diphthong  like  o-w  in  no-wonder,  which  should  be  preserved. 
At  an  early  period  it  was  pronounced  both  by  Greeks  and  Romans,  like  French  ou,  La- 
tin U,  the  00  in  fool. 

115. '  sriRiTUS  ASPER  (rough  breathing,)  English  A,  placed  over  the  second  character  of 
diphthongs  or  digraphs,  as  06  where,  read  ho-w  or  hoc.  The  (*)  spiritua  lenls  (smooth  breath- 
ing) indicates  the  absence  of  the  rough  breathing,  as  in  the  English  owe.  It  is  not  indi- 
cated in  inscriptions. 

115a.  As  it  is  hardly  possible  to  commence  a  word  with  a  vowel,  without  allowing  a 
little  inaudible  breath  to  pass  before  the  vocal  ligaments  begin  to  vibrate,  this,  as  Chavce 
suggests,  may  be  the  smooth  breathing. 

116.  Aa  zd  haa  (lis  single  cJiaracter  z,*  so  its  cognate  si  is  sometimes  written  with  a  single 
letter,  as  in  i^pov  or  darpov  (a  star.)  In  writing  the  Doric  and  Eolic  dialects,  ^  was  re- 
placed by  ah,  as  if  the  double  sound  varied  from  that  in  wi«(/om  to  thf.t  in  miscfeed.  The 
character  a  is  used,  except  as  a  final,  to  which  c  is  restricted,  as  in  ^/o<5oc,  (wise.) 

*  See  Haldcman.     Investigation  of  the  power  of  the  Greek  Z  by  means  of  Phonotic  laws. — Phonetic  Jour- 
nal, Sept.  24,  1853. 


32 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPnT. 


liii 


117.  The  characters  E,  n,  P,  x,  have  not  the  same  power  in  Greek  and  Latin,  which 
causes  great  inconvenience,  and  tends  to  prohibit  the  use  of  the  proper  Greek  characters, 
for  manuscript  forms,  most  of  which  arose  in  the  7-lOth  centuries.*  This  difficulty  should 
be  removed  by  using  e  or  6,  for  which  authority  may  be  found  in  Greg.  Placent.  p.  106, 
plate;  and  in  the  Elementa  Epigraphices  Graecae  of  Franz,  Berlin,  1840,  p.  245  below. 
P  should  have  the  upper  projection  cut  away,  the  angle  rounded  (P,)  and  the  curve  thick 
above,  and  tapering  downwards.  H  might  have  the  Coptic  form  (H)  and  (X)  would  be 
nearly  the  Coptic  X. 

118.  r,  Y,  r,  before  y,  x,  {,  jj,  has  the  proper  of  ng  in  sing  or  n  in  ancle,  angle,  as  in  dfxukoc 
(curved,)  Latin  angulus  (an  angle.)  Words  like  sing  cannot  be  represented  in  Greek  and 
Latin,  because  the  ng  sound  is  not  made  except  in  connection  with  a  following  guttural. 
In  these  pages  T  will  be  used  for  the  nasal  sound. 

119.  0  is  written  with  ph  in  the  Roman  alphabet.  It  differs  from  F  in  not  being 
made  by  the  lower  lip  and  the  upper  teeth,  but  by  the  contact  of  both  lips,  as  in  blowing. 

120.  V  was  originally  a  Greek  letter  with  the  power  of  ooze,  and  from  this  the  later  Y, 
Y  (French  w)  seems  to  have  been  formed,  either  to  indicate  the  pursing  of  the  lips  by  the 
contraction  of  the  base,  or  to  show  its  relation  to  I.  Y  had  not  the  pinched  sound  of  French 
u  in  the  Eolic  dialect,  nor  as  the  second  element  of  the  labial  diphthongs;  hence  av  agrees 
with  English  ofw  and  German  au,  in  brown,  braun. 

121.  Diphthongs,  Ai  as  in  atsle;  or  like  o-y  in  go-ye;  «>(  the  same  lengthened;  a  like  e-y 
in  get-ye;  »7t  the  same  lengthened;  and  in  all  cases,  the  first  element  has  its  proper  power. 


ACCENT. 

122.  T7ie  accent  of  Greek  differs  from  that  of  Latin  in  falling  upon  the  last  syllable,  as 
well  as  upon  the  second  and  third  from  the  end.  There  are  three  varieties,  the  acute  ( ' ) 
and  grave  (  \)  used  with  long  and  short  syllables,  but  the  grave  restricted  to  finals;  and 
the  circumflex,  ("  ~)  which  is  a  union  of  the  others,  used  with  long  final  or  penultimate 
syllables. 

123.  Th^  acute  accent  indicates  the  chief  stress,  the  grave  a  secondary  one.  A  word 
bearing  an  acute  accent  on  a  final  syllable,  may  have  it  changed  to  a  grave  in  the  middle 
of  a  sentence  (as  being  weaker  among  other  syllables,)  although  the  acute  would  be  pre- 
served at  the  close,  as  in  the  English  sentence  (writing  detain  in  Greek  characters)  "/ 

*See  Epitome  Gbaecae  Palaeografhiae  et  de  beota  Graeci  sebmonis  fronunoiationk  dissebtatio 
ATOTOBE  B.  P.  D.  GBEOOBio  PLACENTiNio,  ROMAE,  MD.  00.  XXXV.  This  work  IB  abnndantly  illustrated  with 
figures. 

t  lialdeman,  Proo.  Aroer.  Acad.,  1849,  p.  171;  Castanis,  The  Greek  Exile,  Philad.,  1854,  p.  246;  E.  A.  So- 
phocles, Greek  Alphabet,  1854,  p.  113 — 14. 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


33 


will  iwt  dtrijv  iny  longer^  I  will  not  divjv.  So  the  second  syllable  of  renewed  is  acute  com- 
pared with  the  first,  but  '*f  we  say  "  buds  are  renewed  6very  spring,"  it  becomes  grave  in 
comparison  with  the  acute  accent  of  a'cry. 

124.  In  strict  accuracy,  the  acute  accent  seems  to  have  been  rather  at  the  end  of  the 
vowel  or  syllable,  the  grave  at  the  heginning,  and  the  circumflex  in  the  middle,  corresponding 
respectively  to  the  crescendo  "•==:,  the  diminuendo  r=-,  and  the  atoell  -=::::=—  in  music. 
The  following  are  offered  as  English  approximations: — sea-dog,  seed-ing,  strai-ning,  cara- 
van, caravansery,  careful,  elecampane,  undeviating,  unconstitutionality,  incontestibility. 

125.  As  English  Jias  sounds  unknown  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  it  would  be  difficult 
to  find  a  line  of  English  which  they  could  represent  or  read  correctly  if  written  in  their 
alphabets.     For  example — 

"  The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man," 
.. ..  t  np..np  aT.,8..  ..  fji..uxatu3  ,.  fi..v — 
DHI    PR..PR  ST..D..  ..     M..NCiEND  ..  M..N — 

cannot  be  written,  because  the  power  of  th  in  tJie,  the  vowels  of  study,  the  vowel  and  v  in 
of,  the  vowel  and  z  sound  of  is,  have  no  proper  characters,  and  the  existing  ones  do  not 
allow  of  the  English  latitude  of  power.  Similarly,  the  line — Those  things  Aanging  trithi/i — 
contains  but  four  letters  (o,  h,  y,  and  final  n)  which  would  be  written  and  read  by  a  Ro- 
man in  this  connection.  In  the  following  examples,  the  Greek,  Latin  and  English  elements 
are  nearly  identic. 

arm    hold    pure    bind    hero    cone    scheme    town    sweet    useful    wine    fed 

dpfi      6X3        ntup      ^axvd     "put       xwv       axcp.  rauv        ann         to6ff,.iiX    uaiv       ..ed 

ARM     HOLD      PJUR     B^END   HIRO      CON        SCIM  TAVN      SVIT        JUSFUL     V^N      F..D 

Here,  the  Greek  t,  a,  being  properly  vowels,  mup  and  ohit  admit  of  being  read  as  dissyllables, 
so  that  they  are  not  true  representatives  of  pure,  atoeet,  nor  would  the  Latin  forms  have 
been,  before  the  modern  separation  of  I,  J,  and  V,U. 


THE  DIGAHHA. 

126.  The  inconvenience  of  one  letter  for  the  sounds  of  ooze  and  well,  although  not  felt  by 
some  who  have  proposed  English  alphabets,  was  appreciated  to  some  extent  by  the  ancients. 
The  sixth  Hebrew  letter  vxm  (in  wound  from  toind)  was  represented  in  archaic  Greek  by 
the  'digamma'  f  (the  original  of  the  Roman  F,)  and  it  is  possible  that  in  some  dialects  this 
had  the  power  of  German  W  and  Ellenic  (Romaic)  /?,  the  sonant  of  ^  §  1 19,  that  is,  a  con- 
sonant akin  to  English  v,  but  made  with  the  lips  alone. 

127.  Wis  the  proper  character  for  this  aspirate  b,  it  was  made  for  it,  and  is  still  in  ex- 
tensive use  as  its  representative.  "  W  is  of  German  origin,  and  occurs  first  in  the  name 
of  Witiges,  anno  536,  on  coins." — Kraitsir's  Glossology,  p.  98. 


1  i 

r'    i 


34 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


m 


128.  The  elements  of  woo  are  sequents  in  English  and  Latin,  as  in  wool,  wltvrnvs,  but 
not  in  Greek,  where  they  would  be  likely  to  be  submitted  to  a  naturalising  process  akin 
to  that  which  produced  the  three  forms— English  tool/  (=Ang.  Vulf,)  German  wolf,  and 
Swedish  ulf.  This  process  would  be  used  with  caution  in  proper  names,  which  some  would 
naturalise  and  others  present  in  their  true  pronunciation.  Except  in  the  case  termination, 
Anxtoi;  is  a  genuine  transliteration  of  lvcivs;  'fuA^wc  and  Br^po^  are  naturalised  forms  of 
TVLLivs  and  vervs,  the  former  with  French  m,  the  latter  with  6,  an  interchange  (English 
b,  w,)  which  is  common  in  Sanscrit.  But  Greek  /9,  «,  w,  are  no  more  identic  than  English 
6,  w,  and  German  w,  in  the  proper  name  Weltzhoover,  which  is  pronounced  in  these  three 
modes  (and  sometimes  written  and  printed  with  i,)  in  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania. 

129.  We  can  now  account /or  the  want  of  uniformity  in  the  Greek  orthography  of  Latin 
names,  such  as — 


ObaXi  pto<: 


0Xaoi)eoz 
N  e  podaz 


VALERIVS 

SKVKRVS 

FLAVIVS 

NERVA 

VARRO  ObdppWV 

AVRELIVa      AbpT^ltOZ 
OCTAVIVS      Oxraobioz 
iVLivs  lobkioQ 

WLTVRNVS  ObooXro'jpvoz 


liaXiptoz 
I'eu^po^       Ss^Tjpoz 
^Xabtoz         0Xdt9coz 
Nipfiaz 
Bap  ^wv 
ARIST0BVLV8     AptaroitiXoz 
TIBVR  Tt^upa 

LIVIVS  AeSto^ 

VKRRBS  Bipfttjt: 


130.  Appreciatiny  the  ina/:curacy  of  seeming  to  string  four  or  five  vowels  in  a  line  (V 
being  oo,)  the  Romans  sometimes  used  the  digarama  inverted  (to  keep  it  distinct  from  their 
F,)  writing  ocTAiiAE,  ser^vs  (the  modern  servus,)  and  the  like,  to  be  seen  in  inscriptions. 
Dialectically,  this  j  may  have  had  the  power  of  German  w  (Spanish  h  between  vowels,) 
as  we  find  bervm  for  vervm. 

131.  TJierewas  probably  a  Spanish  dialect  ofL&iin  paralleled  byan  Ellenic  dialect  of  Greek, 
an  Arabic  dialect  of  Hebrew,  and  a  Sanscrit  dialect  of  some  unknown  original.  For,  in 
some  cases,  a  language  pure  in  the  morning,  may  have  sloughed  off  a  dialectic  ulcer  in 
the  afternoon  of  the  same  day,  and  the  organs  which  could  open  sufficiently  for  brig  and 
kin  in  summer,  might  close  to  the  aperture  required  for  bridge  and  chin,  when  opposed  to 
the  blasts  of  winter. 

132.  Th^  greatest  corruptions  occur  when  the  language  instinct  has  become  enervated. 
Then  sixt  is  perverted  to  "sixth,"  although  forbidden  by  a  law  of  the  language.  Then 
some  one  may  say  "of  like"  for  alike,  as  "almost"  is  said  for  amo«<  (perhaps  an  old  dative 
akin  to  the  German  am  meisten,)  and  "  out  of  doors"  for  om<  adoors — mistaking  for  a  plural 
sign  the  adverbial  -s  of  fmcards,  whence,  sirux,  twice,  else,  vix,  bis,  8c<:,  d^  (backwards,)  the 
u  of  ah  (back)  becoming  n  or  tp,  as  in  Ellenic.     Compare  Xa~jpo<:  and  }.dQpoz  (violent.) 


ANALYTIC  OKTHOGRAPHY. 


35 


CHAPTER  VI. 


THE    ANGLISH    ALPHABET. 

With  all  the  prejudices  of  an  antiquarian  taste,  and  an  eye  long  familiar  with  the  form  in  which  the  words  had  been 
accustomed  to  be  read,  in  what  has  been  called  the  Anglo-Saxon  character,  and  with  the  difficulty  of  recognising  the 
same  words  when  presented  in  a  different  dress,  it  required  a  strong  reason  to  justify  tlte  rejection  of  the  old  letters. 
Nothing  but  a  thorough  conviction  that  the  Roman  character  would  be  the  moat  legible,  and  would  best  show  the  identity 
of  the  present  English  with  Anglo-Saxon,  as  well  as  the  clear  analoer  existing  in  the  words  of  all  the  other  Qermanio 
languages,  would  have  led  to  the  adoption  of  this  typo.  Boaworth,  Dictionary  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  language,  Lo!idon, 
1838,  p.  clxxi. 

§  133.  Anglish  ortJwgraphy  is  nearly  like  that  of  Latin  and  German.  The  characters 
diflfer  somewhat  from  the  Roman,  which  are  frequently  used  instead.  The  letters  are 
a,  b,  c,  b,  e,  p,  5,  b,  1,  1,  m,  n,  0,  p,  ji,  p,  c,  J»,  »,  u,  p,  y. 

134.  A  as  in  arm,  art,  and  probably  as  in  fall,  what.  Compare  amklsniall;  stal  a  stall; 
fram  from;  nat  not. 

135.  Cay  always  pure,  as  in  Latin.  Compare  corn  corn;  cirnel  kirnel;  cepan  keep; 
brocen  broken;  ceac  keg,  cag;  ece  acJie;  cennan  ken;  cynn  (Irish  cine)  Jein;  cyning  (old 
German  cuninc)  king;  citte  kit;  cealf  calf;  cinne,  cinn  (old  German  cinni  and  kinnc) 
cJiin;  cild  (old  German  cind,  kind,)  c7u7rf. 

136.  e,  e,  in  they,  met;  a  as  in  fat.  Compare  fatt/a<;  %0Et  tlmt;  aepl  apple;  hoEbbe 
Juxve;  band  band;  paSn  wagon.  Care  should  be  taken  never  to  use  »  for  this  letter, 
but  (if  the  proper  type  is  not  at  hand)  to  file  off  the  right  hand  side  of  the  Roman  letter. 
This  would  form  the  basis  of  a  good  letter  for  the  vowel  in  fat;  whilst  the  use  of  the 
unaltered  Roman  letter  would  tend  to  corrupt  Latin. 

137.  P,  (u  at  a  later  period  probably  as  in  of,  vine  (its  Welsh  power.)  Compare  ofer, 
ouer,  oi?er;  efen  even;  lufe,  luue,  loue,  love;  hafe,  haue,  Jiave;  Mer  fever;  MJive;  fers 
a  verse;  ff  as  in  0^  its  Welsh  power.  In  Belgian,  v  often  replaces  English/,  which  is  a 
Devonshire  peculiarity.    Compare 


Belgian, 

Anglish, 

English, 

Oerman. 

Toet 

fot 

foot 

fuss 

vloer 

flor 

floor 

flur 

vrij 

freo 

free 

frei 

geven 

gifan 

give 

geben. 

138.  Gay  pure,  as  in  get,  give.  In  gear  year;  gearn  yam;  geolca  ydk;  geolo  yellow; 
ciorl  churl;  cealf  calf;  the  element  after  the  initial  is  probably  English  y,  which  remained 
in  the  Eoglish  yolk  after  the  g  was  lost.  Some  regard  ge  as  equivalent  to  English  y,  but 
as  'guard'  is,  (or  was)  provincially  gyard,  and  *cow'  iscyoio;  Anglish  geard  (a  yard, 
gard-en)  was  probably  gyard,  or  in  Latin  letters — gjard. 


36 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHT. 


I    !' 


I! 


139.  O  perhaps  as  in  ii^t.    Compare  the  double  Anglish  forms  mon  and  man,  lond  and 
•  land,  sond  and  sand. 

140.  S,  r,  doubtful;  perhaps  pure  in  some  dialects,  in  others  as  in  izeal,  misery,  a  Somerset 
(zomerzet)  and  Devonshire  form. 

141.  V  as  in  thm.  The  Greek  6,  (?,  may  be  subtituted,  or  i. 

142.  D,  %,  as  in  then.  When  this  type  is  wanting,  a  may  be  substituted.  The  sonant 
and  surd  ih  were  interchangeable  to  such  an  extent  in  the  various  dialects,  that  the  let. 
ters  of  both  fell  into  Snglish  th,  with  which  Anglish  words  are  often  written  without 
taking  the  difference  into  account.* 

143.  p  English  w,  and  represented  by  both  w  and  v,  but  as  the  letter  is  a  manuscript 
and  italic  form  of  Latin  Y,  with  the  second  line  turned  into  the  stemt  and  as  it  has  no 
connection  with  Germanic  W,  v  is  its  proper  representative. 

The  following  may  be  compared,  in  which  the  Gothic  initial  probably  agrees  with  the  others. 


Latin, 

Gothic, 

Anglish, 

English, 

VENTUS 

vinds 

pind 

wind   =vind 

VELLUS 

vulla 

pul 

wool    sVUl 

VIDUA 

viduvo 

pidpa 

widow=vido 

VOLO 

viljan 

pyllan 

will     =vil 

VERMIS 

vaurms 

porm 

worm  ssVBTjm 

144.  Dr.  Bostcorth  virtually  admits  the  necessity  of  measuring  languages  by  the  same 
alphabet — sounds  by  the  same  letters;  but  his  use  of  W  (where  Diefenbach,  Kaltschmidt, 
and  others  use  V,)  removes  Anglish  from  Latin  and  gives  it  a  forced  and  unreal  resem- 
blance to  German.  On  the  other  hand,  some  will  have  *cinn'  read  like  chin,,  to  bring  it 
down  to  the  English  level,  by  removing  it  from  its  cognates,  the  Belg.  kin,  Gothic  kinnus, 
Greek  r^vwc,  &c.     The  Latin  V  is  used  in  the  next  examples — 

Latin,  Anglish,  English. 

A  VAD-ERE  vad-an  wad-e  =:ved 

;.  ,  VOLV-ERE  vealov-ian  wallow  =vblo 

VAST-ARE  vest-an  waste  =ve8t. 

145.  Y,  y,  has  its  proper  power  of  French  u,  German  ii.  The  dot  indicates  nothing. 
It  is  not  placed  over  the  small  *.        146.  cs  is  preferred  to  x,  and  c?  to  qu. 

147.  In  the  change  from  Anglish  to  English,  the  derived  language  often  retained  old 
forms  which  were  allowed  to  become  corrupt  in  the  original.  The  English  toagon  is  older 
than  the  Anglish  paen,  (as  if  wine?)  whence  wain;  and  the  modern  rain  is  precisely  the 
Anglish  *ren,'  a  corruption  of  *regn. 

*The  English  use  of  th  for  two  sounds  recalls  the  Greek  double  letters,  which  had  different  powers  in  different 
dialects;  ^  being  k<  or  x<;  ^,  «■(,  /3(,^(;  and  ^,  zd,  td.  Without  a  similar  reason.,  the  Oreeks  would  hardly  have 
used  such  an  UDphilosophic  mode  of  writing. 

tSoe  Einman.  Thesauri,  Inscriptiones;  Coloniae  Brandcnb.  1671,  p.  414,  and  many  old  books. 


ANALYTIC  ORTIIOGBAPHY. 


37 


CHAPTER  VII. 


OKGANS  OP  THE  VOICE. 

Ce  qui  doit  encore  r^suUer  de  ces  considerations c'ost  I'admirntion  qu'inspire  ce  ro^oaniHmn  morveilleiix  du  plus 

parfait  de  tous  les  instrumcns,  I'organe  de  la  vois.    Alil  sans  doute,  il  a  pour  nuteur  lo  plus  ptirlait  do  tous  los  artiHtes. 
— Abbi  Sicard. 

§  148.  The  larynx  is  the  organ  of  voice.  It  is  composed  of  five  yielding  cartilages  united 
by  ligaments,  and  various  muscles,  forming  a  mass  at  the  head  of  the  trachea  or  windpipe, 
of  which  it  is  a  continuation.  Although  large  enough  externally  to  render  the  front  of 
the  neck  more  or  less  prominent,  the  larynx  is  reduced  within  to  a  narrow  opening,  ex- 
tending front  and  back,  named  the  glottal  fissure  (rfi.na  glottldis.) 

149.  Each  aide  of  the  glottal  fissure  has  an  elastic  band  with  the  inner  edge  (next  the 
fissure)  free,  and  the  outer  edge,  as  well  as  the  ends  attached  to  the  cartilaginous  frame- 
work. These  bands  are  the  vocal  ligaments;  they  have  no  independent  power  of  vibra- 
tion, but  are  as  passive  as  the  reed  of  a  clarinet,  until  acted  upon  by  a  current  of  air. 
Their  tension  and  length  vary  in  speech  and  song,  but  they  are  never  quite  relaxed. 

150.  Wlmi  the  larynx  is  in  repose,  as  in  ordinary  breathing,  the  glottal  fissure  is  widest 
at  its  posterior  end.  In  this  condition  there  is  no  vibration,  even  with  increase  of  breath; 
to  cause  vibration,  and  consequently  voice,  the  glottis  must  be  narrowed  to  a  uniform  slit, 
(Willis.)  The  singing  voice  is  due  to  a  greater  approximation  of  the  vocal  ligaments  than 
is  required  in  speech.  (Faber,  inventor  of  the  speaking  and  singing  machine,  in  a  verbal 
communication.)     In  falsetto  singing,  the  extreme  edges  alone  vibrate.     (Johann  Miiller.) 

151.  The  parallelism  of  the  vocal  cords  is  the  effect  of  volition,  end  is  chiefly  due  to  the 
action  of  two  triangular  cartilages  (the  arytenoid,)  the  anterior  angles  of  which  approach 
each  other,  and  the  cords  with  them.  As  every  sonant  element  of  speech  requires  the 
parallelism  of  the  vocal  cords,  and  every  surd  avoids  it,  there  is  a  continual  quiver  of 
closing  and  opening,  which  can  be  viewed  in  the  throat  of  some  birds;  and  as  eight  sylla- 
bles (like  pity,  Fopocatapetl,)  can  be  pronounced  in  a  second,  there  are  sixteen  motions  in 
this  short  space  of  time,  not  like  the  unappreciated  trills  of  the  tongue,  but  controlled  and 
individualised  by  the  speaker.  This  is  about  double  the  rapidity  of  the  motion  of  the 
eyelids. 

ORGANS  OF  SPEECH. 

152.  The  mouth  and  nose  act  on  the  voice  or  breath  proceeding  from  the  glottic,  by 
means  of  the  lips,  teeth,  tongue,  palate  (roof  of  the  mouth,)  and  its  continuation,  the  suft 

6 


f 


38 


ANALYTIC  ORTUOGKAPHY. 


palate,  or  palatal  veil,  which  bears  the  uvula,  and  acts  as  a  valve  to  close  and  open  the 
nasal  passage  posteriorly. 

153.  The  pharynx  is  the  cavity  of  the  throat  behind  the  uvula.     It  extends  up  to  the 
posterior  nasal  passages,  and  is  concerned  in  modifying  the  vowels. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


THE  ELEMENTS. 


At  the  proaent  day,  in  pliysius  nnd  uliumiHtry,  we  have  no  longer  theor'iRts  in  the  sense  of  the  scliuols  of  the  Inst  cen- 
tury  Siiuli  men  are  indeed  still  to  be  found,  but  only  in  those  departments  of  science  which  have  not  yet  acquired 

a  trulv  sciontilio  foundation;  and  in  which,  partly  for  convenience,  partly  from  a  deficiency  of  logic,  such  speculations 
uro  tolerated. — Liehig,  Principles  of  Agricultural  Cheniistry,  1855. 

§  154.  This  cliapfcr  beiny  introductory  to  the  succeeding  one  on  the  Phases  of  Words, 
its  subject  is  not  treated  fully,  but  will  be  resumed  farther  on.  In  the  mean  time,  the 
words  "diphthong"  and  "coalescent"  will  be  used,  although  the  English  syllables  oy,  /,  ou, 
as  a  vowel  followed  by  a  consonant,  have  no  more  right  to  a  special  name  than  the  syllable 
odd.  Capital  letters  will  be  used  with  their  Latin  (or  Greek)  power — others  as  in  English, 
unless  there  is  a  statement  to  the  contrary. 

155.  The  old  division  of  the  elements  into  two  classes  (vowels  and  consonants)  is  philoso- 
phic and  proper.  Those  systems  are  unphilosophic  which  make  three  classes  for  vowels, 
sonant  consonants,  and  surd  consonants;  or  which  separate  a  class  or  order  of  sibilants; 
or  include  ?,  w,  in  an  order  of  liquids. 

156.  Vowels  (^vocalis  vocal,  sonorotts,)  are  made  of  the  uninterrupted  voice,  the  distinctions 
between  them  being  due  to  slight  modifications,  chiefly  of  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  and 
pharynx.  Vowels  ave  pure  (or  normal;)  nasal,  as  some  of  the  French,  Portuguese,  and 
Polish  vowels  are;  whispered,  of  which  some  of  the  aboriginal  American  languages  afforded 
examples;  independent  (of  expiration,  inspiration,  or  voice,)  being  a  vowel  effect  succeed- 
ing a  clack;  and  glottal,  in  which  the  vowel  is  accompanied  by  a  scraping  effect  along  the 
rather  close  glottis.    Its  type  is  the  Hebrew  and  Arabic  ain. 

157.  Consonants  are  'he  result  of  interrupting  the  vocalised  or  unvocalised  breath.  Their 
quality  depends  upon  the  point  where  the  interruption  is  made,  and  upon  the  nature  and 
extent  of  the  interruption.  They  are  classified  according  to  the  points  of  contact  where 
they  are  modified  or  interrupted. 

158.  The  consonants  of  uieb,  whip,  and  the  vowels  in  ore,  ooze,  belong  to  the  labial  con- 
tact; those  of  five  to  the  labio-dental;  thin  then  to  the  lingui-dental;  debt,  le&n,  to  the 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


39 


dental  or  basi-dental;  «eize  to  what  may  be  called  the  oigmal  contact  (from  the  Greek  let- 
ter, and  from  aij-fio^  a  hissing,)  for  «  has  more  affinity  with  t  than  with  «/«,  which,  with  zh, 
belong  to  the  palatal  contact.  The  guttural  contact  is  formed  by  the  back  part  of  the 
tongue  and  palate,  as  in  young,  c&g.  The  vowels  in  pique,  vein,  ave  guttural  vowels.  The 
glottal  contact  seems  to  be  formed  at  the  glottis,  as  in  /toe.  There  are  several  glottal  con- 
sonants in  Hebrew  and  Arabic.  The  epigloida  is  passive,  without  muscles,  and  it  is  not 
an  organ  of  speech,  as  some  have  asserted. 

159.  Tli^ fundamental  elemetita  are  the  (Latin)  vowels  U,  A,  I,  and  the  consonants  (mutes) 

P,  T,  Cay,  corresponding  to  the  lips, palate  and  throat,  or  to  the  outer,  middle  and  inner  parts 

of  the  mouth.     When  the  contacts  are  half  open,  a  series  of  intermediate  consonant  sounds 

result,  which  may  be  called  liquids.     These  three  kinds  are  related  as  represented  in  the 

diagram,  the  affinities  running  vertically,  and  the  analogies  horizontally,  but  as  P,  T,  are 

equally  close,  and  as  A  is  much  more  open — more  of  a  vowel  than  U — the  affinity  between 

A  and  L  or  R  is  much  less  than  between  U  and  V,  still  greater  is  the  distance  from  A  to  T, 

compared  with  U  to  P. 

Vowels  U  A  I 

Liquids  V  L  J 

.,  ,.  Mutes  1  f  Cay 

160.  The  primary  vowels,  in  natural  order  axe 

OU  A  EI,  or  IE  A  OU, 

and  in  forming  them  mechanically,  if  a  tube  of  a  certain  length  produces  U,  it  must  be 
shortened  for  0,  and  so  on  to  I,  which  requires  to  be  shortened  the  most.  A  is  the  type 
of  the  vowels — the  natural  vowel — and  the  most  agreeable  of  the  whole.  Closing  the  or- 
gans from  A  towards  the  throat,  E  and  1  will  be  formed :  if  towards  the  lips,  0  and  U. 

161.  Two  complementary  vouoels  are  wanted  to  occupy  the  spaces  on  each  side  of  A, 
which  are  greater  than  those  between  OU,  and  between  EI.  These  are  awe,  between  A 
and  0,  (formed  on  Faber's  speaking  machine  by  touching  the  0  and  A  keys  simultane- 
ously,) and  Mm  on  the  throat  side,  between  A  and  E,  from  the  latter  of  which  it  is  more 
commonly  derived.  Some,  on  the  faith  of  mechanical  experiments,  locate  tirn  between 
O  and  U,  thus  making  it  a  labial — a  view  which  would  vitiate  philological  deductions. 
Mr.  Ellis  would  prefer  at  between  A  and  £. 

162.  The  secondary  vowels  are  modifications  of  the  primary  and  complementary  ones, 
formed  by  a  different  aperture,  and  commonly,  but  not  necessarily  short.  They  occur 
long,  whilst  the  primaries  may  become  short  and  abrupt,  or  staccatoed.  Any  vowel  is 
here  considered  secondary  whose  place  is  between  those  already  named,  as  bit,  bet,  bat, 
bot,  but,  full.     If  naught  and  not  differed  only  in  length,  the  two  would  constitute  but 


40 


ANALYTIC  ORTIIOGRAPIIT. 


one  vowel,  and  it  ia  worthy  of  notice,  that  whilst  the  secondary  not  has  a  closer  aperture 
tlmn  its  primary  n«?/ght,  the  secondary  them  is  more  ojmi  than  its  primary  they.  But 
this  seeming  law  would  disappear  with  a  change  in  our  conventional  nomenclature,  if,  for 
example,  we  were  to  consider  foot  the  primary  and  fool  the  secondary.  The  following  is 
a  comparison  of  lip  and  throat  vowels  of  about  the  same  degree  upon  each  side  of  the  scale : 

odd  add  *^ ,        . 

owe  there 

o-bey  i         them 

fool  his 

foot  he 

COALESCENTS. 

163.  TJie  labial  vowel  ooze  readily  becomes  the  consonant  way,  and  between  them  there 
is  a  shade  of  sound  allied  to  both,  but  a  variety  of  the  latter,  and  a  consonant,  because  it 
has  the  power  of  forming  a  single  syllable  with  a  vowel,  which  two  vowels  cannot  do. 
Hence  to  connect  I  A  U  into  a  monosyllable,  the  extremes  must  be  consonanted,  making 
JAV  (yow,)  and  the  result  is  similar  if  the  order  is  changed,  as  in  AJV,  JVA,  &c. 
Conceiving  the  coalescents  to  be  vowels,  the  ancient  grammarians  adopted  the  word  dipJi- 
tJiong  to  account  for  two  vowels  forming  one  syllable.  The  labial  coalescent  is  represented 
by  u,  w,  in  English,  as  in  writing — out,  house,  mouse,  (German  aus,  haus,  maus.) 

164.  J/te  ffuttural  vowel  pique  may  become  the  guttural  liquid  yea,  as  in  mim'on,  and 
between  the  two  lies  the  guttural  coalescent  in  aisle,  ei/e,  boy.  The  consonant  relation 
of  the  coalescents  is  shown  in  the  combinations  how  weW,  my  years,  in  which  it  is  difficult 
to  tell  where  the  coalescent  ends.  A  comparison  of  the  former  (or  how-ell)  with  ha-well 
and  the  latter  (or  my-ears)  with  ma-years,  will  show  their  affinity. 

165.  A  coalescfut  between  vowels  is  apt  to  form  a  fulcrum  by  becoming  a  more  complete 
consonant.  Compare  (emp)7oyer  with  lawyer.  Hence  the  Romans,  who  wrote  AE  be- 
fore a  consonant  in  gr.<ec-i  (Greeks,)  used  their  I  consonant  when  the  cay  was  omitted, 
or  a  vowel  followed,  as  in  gra.ti  (a  dissyllable,)  for  grmi. 

166.  In  English,  the  guttural  coalescent  is  preceded  by  the  vowel  of  aisle  (varying  dia- 
lectically  to  at  and  up*)  that  oioil,  boy;  and  oi/ull,  as  in  buoy,  pronounced  boo-y  by  fish- 
ermen, &c.,  but  sometimes  corrupted  with  -oy.  The  labial  coalescent  occurs  after  the 
same  French  a  of  aisle,  as  in  now  (varying  dialeotically  to  at,  up,)  Faust,  saur-kraut.  But 

*  The  Towel  of  up  is  the  normal  sound  according  to  Wallis,  Wilkins,  Franklin,  Pitman  and  Ellis.  The  last 
uses  it  concurrently  with  at,  as  in  Isaiah,  with  ui  (up)  initial,  and  ai  (aye)  medial,  and  he  says  (M8.)  that  the 
second  syllable  of  this  word  is  pronounced  with  ai  in  ail  "only  by  dissenting,  i.  e.  non-university  clergymen."  I 
was  told  by  Greeks  at  the  Propaganda  that  in  the  island  of  Syra  the  Catholics  say  lyee  or  tahee,  and  the  schisumtica 
kj/ee  fcr  »< — the  latter  being  nearest  the  true  form' 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPUT. 


41 


u  (you)  docs  not  contain  it,  except  where  English  has  been  influenced  by  Belgian  and 
Welsh,  and  then  u  is  read  with  the  initial  vowel  of  it,  or  nearly  as  i/to  detached  from 
Brand^u?ine.     This  is  used  in  New  York,  and  is  adopted  by  Dr.  Comstock. 

1G7.  From  tJte  auperjwial  analysis  given  by  the  English  orthoepists,  it  is  generally  im- 
possible to  determine  whether  any  particular  one  placed  the  consonant  of  English  u  first 
{yoo,)  or  last  {iw,)  because  the  notation  was  some  form  of  i-u  or  ce-oo  on  both  sides;  and 
as  the  reader  was  expected  to  compress  them  into  one  syllable,  this  would  be  done  ac- 
cording to  vernacular  practice,  so  that  iJie  same  authority  would  be  cited  to  justify  se- 
veral modes  of  pronunciation,  and  a  pronouncing  dictionary  be  the  chief  means  of  pre- 
venting uniformity  by  encouraging  provincial  variation,  even  among  those  anxious  to  con- 
form to  some  standard.  With  Antrim,  ''twill'  (it  will)  is  too  ill;  with  Webster  and 
Knowles,  'well'  is  oo-cZ;  Walker,  Knowles,  and  Comstock*  make  'coil'  identical  with  caw 
ill,  as  \iclaw-ey  and  cloy  were  identic.  Yet  we  have  recently  heard  a  child  of  three  and 
a  half  years  old  make  the  distinction,  saying  *boy'  for  hoy,  and  *bo-y'  for  little  hoy,  using 
*girly'  as  a  diminutive  in  the  same  sentence.  Bawy  (monosyllable?)  for  hoy  is  given  by 
Halliwell. 

168.  Dieresis  is  a  change  from  a  coalescent  to  its  allied  vowel,  in  pronouncing  a  diph- 
thong as  a  dissyllable.  It  is  commonly  marked  by  (**)  two  dots — an  unphilosophic  mode, 
because  the  coalescent  and  the  vowel  are  different  elements,  each  of  whl«^,h  should  have 
its  letter.     The  mark  may  be  used  to  separate  syllables,  as  when  praim  is  pronounced 

^"A  Treatise  on  Phonology:  comprisiajr  a  Perfect  Alphabet  for  the  English  Language;  a  specimen  exhibition 
of  the  absurdities  of  our  present  system  of  orthography;  Gomstook's,  Pitman's,  and  the  Cincinnati  alphabet,  con- 
trasted; a  Lecture  on  Phonetics  by  Prof.  M'Laine;  the  Pamphoneticon,  and  recommendations  of  Gomstook's  Al- 
phabet.    By  Andrew  Comstock,  M.  D.,  second  edition,  Philadelphia,  1855. 

a.  This  work  contains  about  thirty  pages  of  recommendations  from  clergymen,  editors,  superintendents  and  con- 
trollcrs  of  public  education,  college  professors,  &c.  These  recommendations  are  valuable,  as  showing  the  extent 
to  which  the  educated  classes  of  the  United  States  are  dissatisfied  with  the  ordinary  mode  of  spelling  English. 
They  say  in  a  note — "We  do  not  here  wish  to  be  understood  as  referring  to  Pitman's  Short  Hand  Alphabet.  His 
Phonography  as  he  calls  it,  though  not  strictly  phonetic,  is  admitted  to  be  the  best  system  of  short  hand  which  has 
yet  been  devised." 

b.  The  author  says  (p.  15) — "  If  the  Roman  alphabet  be  taken  as  a  basis  on  which  to  found  a  phonetic  alpha- 
bet, its  letters  should  be  so  appropriated  that  they  may  be  conveniently  used  in  all  the  languages  in  which  the  Bo- 
man  alphabet  is  employed.  This  has  been  done  '.  the  present  instance :  for  the  author  was  aware  that  if  his  al- 
phabet were  not  so  construed  as  to  suit  the  European  languages,  it  would  not  be  adapted  to  the  English  language. 
Every  linguist  must  see  this." 

c.  Unfortunately,  whilst  he  uses  e  in  they  and  e  in  them  correctly,  be  has  new  characters  for  the  vowels  oi  field, 
filled;  he  perverts  I  to  ai  in  aisle,  C  to  sh,  J  to  zh,  and  Q  to  wh;  and  he  uses  U  as  in  full,  u  in  vp,  and  0  in  on. 

d.  Alphabets  of  this  kind  show  that  when  authors  depart  from  the  Latin  and  true  etymologic  basis,  there  can 
be  DO  agreement  upon  the  amount  or  kind  of  corruption  which  shall  be  sanctioned,  because  there  can  be  no  rule 
formed  which  shall  justify  mine  and  condemn  yours — adopt  certain  double  letters  proposed  by  me,  and  reject  such 
as  you  propose.  Thus  Dr.  Comstock  intimates  (p.  59)  that  the  Italians  will  never  diiscard  A,  yet  he  does  not  hesi- 
tate to  deprive  them  of  I. 


42 


ANALTTIO  ORTIIOORAPHT. 


nil  •< 


prairie  in  tlnee  syllables,  or  road  dilated  into  rode,  making  aummerode  (8umr"ode,)  out  of 
some  road,  su'dnly  or  sud'nly  out  of  sudnly,  prism'atic  out  of  pri'araatic,  &c.  The  words 
batV'ing,  butn' ing,  have  three  syllables,  and  ban'tling  two,  but  most  persons  would  write 
the  latter  bant'ling,  guided  by  the  etymologic  rather  than  the  phonetic  syllabication.  In 
these  cases  the  separating  mark  is  required  but  once,  because  sudn  cannot  bo  made  a  mo- 
nosyllable as  long  as  '  n '  is  n. 

169.  The  finals  in  bati,  batr,  banr,  sudn,  prism,  &c.,  are  not  essentially  different,  (7,  r, 
have  more  aperture,)  from  those  of  /all,  bar,  den,  aim,  and  they  do  not  require  to  be 
marked  to  indicate  the  formation  of  syllable  without  vowels,  except  in  rare  cases,  as  in 
§  168.  The  Grebo  has  a  word  m  (five,)  Chinese  has  m  (cunt)  and  ng  (five)  as  in  sing, 
and  if  we  write  ma?/  and  aim  with  *m'  why  not  m  with  the  ai/  or  (ai)  omitted?  Bohe- 
mian has  consonant  syllables,  as  drt  sawdust,  smrt  death,  blk  fire,  bib  a  clown,  frkybawj,&c. 

170.  The  following  are  old  Nordish — akr  acre,  backstr  a  baking  (a  proper  name  in  Eng- 
lish,) aftr  after,  flngr  finger,  bitr  biting,  eign  own,  gagn  gain,  gegn  against,  6x1  shoulder, 
oxn  oxen,  avalr  bowed,  fuUr/WZ,  greipr  crooked,  armr  arm,  fLaXxflat,  arligr  early,  ond  many 
more,  which  would  probably  be  admitted  as  English  forms,  were  it  not  that  grammarians 
have  been  accustomed  to  use  the  note  of  exclamation  when  discussing  syllables  without 
vowels.  This,  and  poetic  orthographies  like  Heav'n,  sev'n  (which  no  writing  can  mono- 
syllabise,)  may  have  fostered  the  use  of  the  apostrophe,  as  if  there  were  something  present 
in  the  nature  of  a  vowel.    But  that  something  (n  or  vn)  is  equally  present  in  nv,  nva,  vna. 

171.  But  this  atteniion  to  syllables  is  neglected  in  the  dissyllables  pat,  tap,  the  final  un- 
written breath  of  which  (pa-f,  tap',  bad',  bug''',)  makes  a  syllable  with  the  antecedent  con- 
sonant, a  fact  which  is  partially  recognised  by  the  more  rhythmic  and  delicate  French 
ear.  The  Chinese  word  for  six  is  precisely  the  English  word  luck,  but  it  is  a  monosyllable, 
the  breath  being  retained  by  the  closed  organs,  making  luck'. — Hold.,  Proceedings  of  the 
Am.  Acad.,  1842,  p.  175. 

172.  Syneresia  is  the  change  of  a  guttural  or  labial  vowel  into  a  coalescent.  It  is  usually 
regarded  as  the  union  of  two  vowels  into  a  diphthong,  which  implies  an  impossibility.  It 
may  be  indicated  by  ( ' )  a  reversed  dieresis  mark,  as  in  the  Latin  fenna'e,  with  the  dots 
superimposed.  The  coalescent  letters  should  be  formed  on  a  consonant  basis,  as  in  a'jl 
for  aisle,  and  a'vl  for  owl.  A  consonant  basis  will  give  to  languages  like  Latin  and  Greek, 
a  vowel  to  every  syllable. 

173.  Th^  separation  of  the  coaUscents  from  the  vowels,  being  quite  modern,  their  differ- 
ence is  seldom  recognised  in  alphabets.     This  is  a  grave  defect. 


ANALYTIC  ORTUOORAPnY. 


43 


CONSONANTS. 

174.  Jf  the  lipa  are  partially  cloned  from  the  U  oo  position,  we  get  the  npcrturc  for  the 
initial  of  waj/,  represented  by  w  in  English,  V  in  Latin,  and  u  in  Italian  and  Spanish.  It 
docs  not  occur  in  German,  and  has  a  doubtful  place  in  French;  where,  according  to  Olivier, 
(Sons  de  la  Parole,  p.  171,)  it  occurs  in  careleett  speech,  in  the  words  out,  oueat,  ouaie.  Being 
half  interrupted,  we  will  call  it  a  liquid.     It  has  an  audible  sound,  so  that  it  is  also  sonant. 

175.  If  we  give  w  an  accession  of  breath,  unaccompanied  by  voice  (the  vocal  ligaments 
not  being  parallel,)  it  will  become  wh,  which  has  the  qualities  named  stird  (from  its  want 
of  vocality)  and  aspirate,  from  its  hissing  sound.  The  Romans  applied  the  term  lenis 
(soft)  to  the  quality  of  an  unaspirate  consonant.  (This  and  several  allied  terms  are 
adopted  from  Latham.)  If,  instead  of  forming  the  liquid  icay,  the  lips  be  closed  upon  the 
issuing  voice,  the  sonant  bay  will  result  if  the  voice  is  heard,  and  the  surd  pay  if  it  is  checked. 

176.  If  tJie  ventages  of  a  clarinet  are  stopped,  and  the  end  or  bell  bo  suddenly  clo.sed 
upon  the  issuing  sound,  the  vibration  is  checked ;  and  if  the  vocal  passage  were  made  of 
an  unyielding  material,  b,  d,  and  gay  could  not  be/urmed,  as  the  close  of  the  organs  would 
prevent  the  passage  of  air  over  the  vocal  ligaments.     The  absence  or  rarity  of  these  sounds 
in  some  languages  may  be  due  to  rigidity  in  the  organs  of  speech.* 

177.  The  word  'surd'  nearly  corresponds  to  whispered,  but  is  distinct.  In  whispering, 
the  murmur  of  breath  through  the  larynx  is  heard,  and  if  b  is  the  whispered  element,  it 
continues  until  the  mouth  is  filled  with  air,  whilst  jp  is  not  continuous,  the  organs  being 
rigid.  In  whispering  vowels,  the  organs  are  in  the  normal  speaking  condition,  except 
that  the  vocal  ligaments  are  not  allowed  to  become  parallel. 

178.  A  sonant  element  often  indicates  a  verb  iu  English,  and  its  surd  a  noun,  as  in  prove 
proof;  breathe  breath;  live  life;  braze  brass;  use  use;  refuse  refuse.  Hence,  when /to/e2 
is  a  noun,  it  is  popularly  pronounced  Jiolt,  and  Jdlt  is  authorised. 

179.  Sonant  elements  being  longer  than  surd  ones,  the  length  is  in  some  degree  trans- 
ferred to  a  preceding  vowel,  as  in  road  rote;  bone  boat;  bade  bate;  league  leek;  robe 
rope;  in  which  bait  and  leek  are  as  short  as  bat  and  lick. 

180.  On  account  of  the  additional  effort  required  to  make  the  vocal  ligaments  parallel, 
and  perhaps  to  furnish  breath  for  b,  d,  gay,  beyond  what  is  required  for  p,  t,  cay,  the  lat- 
ter must  be  considered  the  most  typical,  natural,  and  the  earlier.  But  Grimm,  (Ge- 
schichte  der  Deutschen  Sprache,  1853,  chap,  xv.)  gives  the  preference  to  b,  d,  gay. 

*  As  the  mouth  of  speaking  birds  is  unlike  that  of  man,  it  is  probable  that  the  absence  of  articulation  in  the 
apes  is  not  due  to  the  anatomical  peculiarities  commonly  mentioned,  but  to  the  want  of  a  tjyeakiiiff  brain  to  guide 
the  tongue  and  lips  toward  articulation,  as  the  hand  is  guided  in  the  imitation  of  human  actions.  We  have  pro- 
mulgated this  view  in  lectures  and  among  cultivators  of  science  for  twenty  or  twenty-five  years. 


44 


ANALYTIC  OHTIIOOUAI'llY. 


181.  The  effort  to  produce  vocality  ratxy  ^cxhti^B  be  transfurred  from  the  glottin  to  tho 
contacts,  so  that  instead  of  i,  d,  gay,  a  modified  p,  t,  cay  will  occur,  made  with  the  points 
of  contact  (as  the  lips)  flattened  against  each  other,  producing  what  we  call  a  fiat  sound 
— to  be  indicated  by  heovier-faced  (p,  t.  c)  types.  They  occur  in  German,  in  the  abori- 
ginal languages  of  America,  as  Cherokee,  and  we  place  the  t  in  the  Arabic  word  Ydhet 
(one.)  The  ear  takes  cognizance  of  the  sound,  and  the  German  word  tod  (death,)  per- 
haps differs  as  much  from  the  English  totid  as  their  syllable  will  differs  from  toill;  but 
the  Englishman  and  Frenchman  think  the  effect  a  kind  of  d.^  D,  t,  (b  p,  g  c,)  are  in 
fact  often  confounded,  but  the  explanation  given  here  is  based  upon  a  vernacular  ac- 
quaintance with  the  phenomenon. 

182.  That  the  fiat  p,  t,  cay  do  not  require  more  force  of  breath  than  p,  i,  caij,  may  be  thus 
proved.  Take  a  tubulate  retort  holding  about  half  a  pint,  and  partly  filled  with  water; 
let  the  stopper  be  replaced  with  a  glass  tube  passed  through  a  perforated  cork;  then  by 
blowing  through  the  neck,  the  water  will  rise  in  the  tube,  and  indicate  the  amount  of 
pressure,  and  this  ve  have  found  to  be  about  the  same  for  the  two  kinds  o(p.  The  ap- 
paratus may  be  varied  by  inserting  two  tubes  through  the  cork  of  a  bottle,  one  of  them 
bent  at  right  angles,  or  made  of  gum. 

183.  I/a  alight  crevice  is  left  between  the  lips  in  closing  to  i,  the  result  is  the  Spanish 
h  between  vowels,  as  in  Cordoba,  a  sound  associated  with  '  w'  in  German,  where  the  ortho- 
graphy ^  ould  be  Cordaica.  If  this  bh  is  made  surd,  it  becomes  Greek  pJii  If  instead  of 
the  lijis,  the  lower  lip  and  upper  teeth  are  used,  we  get  English  v,  or  if  surd,  English  and 
Latin /will  be  formed.  '  ■' 

184.  The  qualify  o/ph,/,  (fee.  is  aspirate,  of  bh,  v,  &c.  vocal  aspirate,  but  as  some  view 
this  as  a  contradiction  of  terms,  spirant  (Rapp's  term)  may  be  used  instead.f  Neverthe- 
less, if /or  s  is  alternately  made  v  or  z,  an  attentive  ear  can  distinguish  the  hiss  of  the 
former  through  the  vocality  of  the  latter. 

185.  It  is  not  possible  to  breathe  when  the  organs  are  in  the  b,p,  position,  because  the 
nasal  passage  is  closed  by  the  palatal  veil :  if  this  be  opened,  as  in  breathing,  and  voice 

1*  "Whence  is  it  that  the  Spaniards  and  Gascons  confound  b  with  v,  that  the  Germans  scarcely  distinguish  be- 
tween k  and  g  hard,  d  and  t,  b  and  p,  and  that  in  their  orthography  they  often  use  one  or  other  indifferently? 

"  We  onoe  had  a  long  discussion  with  an  educated  Iroquois,  to  determine  whether  a  certain  sound  of  his  lan- 
guage was  k  or  g  hard,  whether  one  should  pronounce  Ganadayd  (village)  or  Kanadaye.  The  discussion  was  long, 
and  we  finally  decided  in  favor  oik.  .  .  The  missionaries  used  these  letters  indifferently  in  their  printed  books. 
Zeisberger  frankly  admits  in  his  L4nS.p6  [Linilpi]  primer,  that  his  printer,  running  short  of  k,  was  obliged  to 
substitute  g.  Zeisberger  was  a  German." — Duponceau,  M<^m.  sur  le  Syst.  Grammat.  dcs  Langues  Indiennes.  Paris, 
1838,  p.  99,  100. 

f  Wilkins  (Real  Character,  London,  1668,  p.  367,)  uses  the  term  incraualcd.  This  table  of  the  elements,  p. 
358,  is  worthy  of  examination. 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOORAPIIY. 


40 


bo  emitted,  the  result  is  a  nasal  b,  that  is,  an  ;/<;  and  if  in  be  treated  like  w  to  produce 
wh,  mrd  ofipirate  wh  will  result,  heard  in  what  Dr.  Rush  calls  the  "symbol  of  a  sneer," 
and  written  hem!  in  English,  and  hm  in  German.  But  this  aspirate  m  is  followed  by  a 
true  sonant  vi  (inhm)  as  wh  in  English  is  always  followed  by  a  true  tv,  when  being  made 
up  of  the  four  sounds  wh-w-e-n.  Sec  §  41  a,  4th  paradox.  To  this  inhni  LepHius  (Alpha- ■ 
bet  p.  27)  wrongly  assigns  the  vowel  in  up,  with  its  resonance  "  lost  by  partially  contract- 
ing the  mouth  or  even  cloning  it  entirely,  in  the  latter  case  it  is  heard  through  the  nose." 
He  would  mark  it  with  a  minute  circle  below  m,  probably  the  final  one — or  both. 

NOTATION   OF   NASALITY. 

186.  Naml  vowels  and  vonsonantd  do  not  differ  more  than  their  pure  origiiialH  diflc'r.  The 
Latin  final  in  tam,  tum,  was  not  m,  but  a  nasal  sign  for  the  vowels,  Verrius  Flaccus  wrote 
it  with  half  its  letter  N.  It  is  sometimes  omitted  in  Inscriptions,  and  Manutius  (Ortho- 
graphiae  Ratio,  Venetiis,  1566,  p.  143,)  gives  an  inscription  beginning  with  the  line — 

LVXURIANTe  .  ANIMO  .  POENU 

where  the  'm'  is  indicated  by  a  superior  line,  the  small  letters  e,  u,  being  probably  used 
because  marked  capitals  were  wanting.  This  is  common  in  old  printing  as  in  " — dura- 
bit  mundus  sub  Meschia  duob.  millibu8  annoiu,  and  postea  reuertetur  ad  informe  sua 
specie."  Stbaetiav  Munster,  Evang.  Hebr.  Lat.  Basileo),  1582,  p.  60.  The  old  printers 
used  it  for  n  also.  The  Portuguese  adopted  this  notation,  as  in  o,  and  it  is  used  by  Kapp 
and  Lepsius;  italic  m  is  used  by  Max  Miiller,  as  in  am;  wljich  Ellis  would  write  an  act, 
oraA;  EichhoffAN  the  n  finishing  with  a  minute  circle;  Feline  Ekritur  Fonetik,  Paris, 
1852,  a. 

187.  A  consonant  is  suggested  by  forms  like  an,  am,  where  the  effect  is  strictly  a  vowel; 
and  they  indicate  a  local  etymology,  which  is  as  bad  as  writing  nocht  for  not;  fur  in  many 
langw'i/efi  nasal  vowels  cannot  he  traced  to  an  antecedent  consonant.  The  missionary — says 
Max  Miiller,  p.  xx,  Ixxxi,  "should  be  guided  entirely  by  ear,  without  paying  any  regard 
to  etymological  considerations,  rvhich  are  too  apt  to  mislead  even  the  most  accomplished 
scholar."  "In  a  first  attempt  to  fix  a  spoken  language.  .  .  .  the  writer  should  not  be 
swayed  by  any  hasty  etymological  considerations."* 

188.  The  indication  of  nasality  by  a  superior  (')  usurps  the  space  which  some  will  re- 
quire for  the  marks  of  length,  and  others  for  accentuals;  and  every  nasal  thus  marked 

*  Of  course  then  we  cannot  write  au  for  o  with  Eichboff,  to  accommodate  a  Sanscrit  phase;  nur  ui  for  French 
^  with  Volney  (Sin>plification,  p.  41,)  for  the  "precious  advantage"  of  representing  certuiu  Arabic  plurals  hy  re- 
versing the  characters,  as  in  dair  a  house,  diar  houses.  This  would  bo  paralleled  in  mu^<ic,  Vy  writing  the  notc« 
ca  instead  of  the  intermediate  e. 

7 


fl 


M 


sfi 


t 

if:- 

<f  ■■'■ 


I 


t\i 


m 


ANALYTIC  ORTUOGBAPHY. 


requires  an  additional  type.  Duponceau  preferred  the  Polish  mode,  which  arose  out  of 
the  early  Latin  typography,  in  which  a  flourish  was  sometimes  thrown  down,  and  towards 
the  right,  much  like  an  inverted  comma  point.  This  point  will  be  used  in  these  pages, 
producing  forms  like  i,  e,  a,  o,  u^  y,  &c. 

189.  Jfa  nasal  voioel  is  properly  represented  by  an  ordinary  vowel  character  and  a  na- 
sal sign,  the  notation  of  m  and  n  is  un philosophic,  but  not  that  of  ng  (except  in  its  dupli- 
city,) if  the  n  is  a  nasal  sign  to  the  gay.  If  su"g  (suG,)  spells  sung,  su"d  (sud,)  is  sun,  and 
su"b  (sub,)  is  sum;  or  if  bo,  bo,  are  the  French  bon,  b  0.  b,o,  are  mon. 

190.  An  analysis  of  (lie  system  of  articulate  sounds  requires  that  the  possible  amount  of 
consonant  variation  should  be  determined,  and  this  will  be  attempted  for  the  labials  (the 
action  of  the  lips  being  most  readily  identified  by  touch  and  sight,)  after  which  the  results 
can  be  applied  to  other  parts  of  the  vocal  organism. 

191.  This  inquiry  has  important  hearings  on  the  investigation  of  languages,  because  the 
theoretic  knowledge  that  a  sound  is  possible,  will  assist  us  in  identifying  it  from  the  ob- 
scurities of  imperfect  description,  a.  Thus  the  accounts  which  the  ancient  grammarians 
give  of  their  plu  are  sufficiently  clear  to  the  modern  who  has  inferred  the  existence  of 
such  a  sound;  (&.)  and  the  relations  of  a  peculiar  Albanian  sonant  aspirate  n,  (No.  2  of 
the  scheme  §  193a.,  483,)  were  detected  when  the  sound  was  heard  in  nature. 

192.  Six  phases  have  been  mentioned,  surd  and  sonant,  lenis  and  aspirate,  oral  and  nasal. 

Several  of  these  may  occur  simultaneously,  but  not  surd  and  sonant,  nor  (in  most  cases) 

lenis  and  aspirate.     In  the  common  alphabet,  when  b  is  surd,  it  is  written  p,  but  surd  or 

whispered  w  or  m  cannot  be  represented ;  and  whilst  Ji  in  bh  does  not  destroy  the  vocality 

of  b,  it  renders  mh,  rh,  Ih,  surd.     We  want,  therefore,  the  means  of  representing  sonant 

and  surd,  independently  of  aspiration.     In  the  examples  to  be  given  in  the  sequel,  the 

Greek  aspiration  and  accent  marks  will  be  used  together,  but  the  latter  should  be  filed 

away  to  a  uniform  thickness,  to  distinguish  them  from  accent  marks,  which  are  tapering. 

Thus 

'  means  lenis-surd, 

"  "      aspirate-surd, 

"      lenis-sonant. 

aspirate-sonant. 

aspiration  through  the  mouth,  as  '1  for  Ih. 

aspiration  through  the  nose,  as  'm  for  mh. 

"        through  nose  and  mouth  simultaneously. 

193.  77ie  following  scheme  indicates  dght  mutes  and  as  many  possible  liquids;  eight 
lenis  forms,  each  of  which  may  be  aspirated;  eight  that  are  pure  or  oral,  each  of  which 


(( 


« 


(( 


ft 


ANALTtlO  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


47 


may  be  nasalised;  and  eight  sonants,  each  of  which  may  be  voiceless.  To  these  might  be 
added  the  coalescents  as  modified  by  nasality,  aspiration,  or  whisper.  To  prevent  confu- 
sion from  so  many  minute  marks,  the  lenis  are  here  neglected,  and  the  sonant  and  surd 
phases  have  the  additional  indication  of  heavy  and  light  letters  respectively. 


little 


o 
as 

H 
9i 


much 


nasal 


pure 


nasal 


pure 


193  a 

I  sonant 

(surd 

{sonant 
surd 

r  sonant 

(surd 

{sonant 
surd 


SCHEME  OF  CONSONANT   PHASES. 


lenis 

1 

asper 
lenis 

2 
3 

aspor 
lenis 

4 
5 

asper 
lenis 

6 

7 

asper 
lenis 

8 
1' 

asper 
lenis 

2' 
3' 

asper 
lenis 

4' 
6' 

asper 
lenis 

6' 

V 

asper 

8' 

w< 

V. 

w,  =  wh 
b.  =  m 

\  =('in) 
p   =  m 

b      •    • 
^b     .    . 

P    =     f 


r 

Ih  !  !  !  ! 

rh 

r 

ih    '.'.'.'. 

rh 

n     .    .    .    . 

'n  Albanian. 

ST? 

n 

'n  Cherokee. 

d 

dh 

•       • 

th 


194.  We  are  here  shaum,  that  however  proper  "ph"  and  "th"  maybe  to  indicate  a 
kind  of  h  modified  at  the  points  p  and  t,  this  notation  is  entirely  inappropriate  in  mh;  for 
asph  breaks  the  labial  barrier  of  ^7,  mJi  should  do  the  same  for  the  nasal  element  m.  Pro- 
ducing a  sound  modified  by  air  passing  from  the  lips,  mh  should  mean  {v,)  a  nasal  v,  or 
rather,  a  nasal  German  w,  for  m  means  a  nasal,  and  fi  a  mouth  aspiration  of  it.  B,  is 
strictly  m,  p,  the  same  ("m)  whispered,  'm  does  not  distinguish  between  sonant  and  surd, 
nor  bh.  or  'b,  between  oral  and  nasal.  The  latter  might  be  read  with  the  lips  closed  or 
open,  if  not  restricted  to  an  oral  phase. 

195.  We  require  an  aspiration  mark  for  the  mouth,  as  employed  in  the  Greek  /5,  and 
another  (*)  for  the  nasal  phase,  which  we  will  name  afflatus,  this  being  one  of  the  Latin 
terms  for  aspiration.  In  the  preceding  scheme,  mute  2'  is  a  sonant  nasal  aspirate;  and 
were  the  aspirate  mark  inverted  (')  it  would  be  equivalent  to  'm  sonant  afflate.  But  the 
increased  breath  necessary  to  aspirate  the  former  would  drive  the  air  through  the  nostrils, 
so  that  in  most  cases  there  would  be  both  aspiration  and  afflatus. 

196.  Theoretic  elements,  like  nasal  bh,  ph,  v,  f,  lb,  rh,  would  probably  be  inconvenient 
in  speech,  on  account  of  the  effort  required  to  drive  voice  or  breath  through  the  two  aper- 
tures, and  the  nice  adaptation  of  mouth  to  distribute  the  current  between  the  two.  a.  It 
is  worthy  of  remark,  that  when  the  liquids  and  nasal  mutes  are  surd,  they  are  likely  to 
become  aspirate. 


48 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


;  '4 


197.  The  liquids  do  not  include  the  nasal  mutes  m,  n,  ng,  although  on  a  cursory  view, 
a  table  like  the  following,  which  would  associate  I,  m,  n,  r,  would  satisfy  most  grapima- 
rians. 

r  little,  {  "quids,  w,  1,  r,  y. 
Voice  Interrupted,  \  I  "^'*^''  °''  "'  (^')  "«• 

[^  much,  mutes,  p,  b,  f,  t,  &c. 
This  is  incorrect,  because,  if  n  as  a  nasal  d,  is  to  be  thrown  out  of  the  mutes  into  ano- 
ther division,  we  must  throw  a  nasal  I  out  of  the  liquids  to  form  still  another.  For  the 
existence  or  non-existence  of  such  an  I  in  nature,  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  question  of 
arrangement.  But  Medhurst  (Diet.  p.  xxxii)  mentions  such  a  sound  in  Chinese — "  when 
it  is  joined  to  a  nasal  final,  the  power  of  the  Z  is  in  a  great  measure  merged  in  the  nasal, 
in  which  case  it  acquires  a  sound  something  similar  to  n."  This  1,  is  liquid  No.  1  in  the 
scheme.  "Kw^a  is  the  same  with  the  20th  final  Jewa,  only  pronounced  with  a  strong  na- 
sal termination,  as  if  written  koo-w''a."  Medhurst  p.  xxxv.  This  seems  to  be  w,  No.  1  of 
the  scheme.  Bohtlingk  mentions  a  nasal  of  German  J.  Compare  Albanian  nj,i,  (one) 
a  nasal  syllable. 

198.  In  the  dental  column,  No.  6  is  a  vocal  aspirate  Ih,  which  we  attribute  provisionally 
to  Irish,  its  surd  cognate  being  in  Welsh.  In  the  next  column  there  is  a  Sanscrit  letter 
which  should  probably  be  located  farther  back  than  r,  a.  It  may  have  been  a  French  j 
nasal  afflate  ('j^)  No.  2  of  the  palatal  contact. 

199.  According  to  the  description  of  Sir  "Wm.  Jones,*  the  cerebral  D  can  hardly  be  a 
pure  mute,  for — "  When  the  tongue  is  inverted  with  a  slight  vibratory  motion,  it  has  a 
mixture  of  the  ra,  with  which  it  is  often,  but  incorrectly  confounded."  Colonel  Vans 
Kennedyf  observes  that  cerebral  2"*  is  peculiar  to  the  Sanscrit  alphabet,  and  in  sound  par- 
takes of  d  and  r."  The  efiect  of  such  a  sound  would  recall  a  vocal  sonant  untrilled  r,  but 
with  Mr.  Ellis,  we  think  these  descriptions  unsatisfactory. 

^On  the  Orthography  of  Asiatick  words,  Asiatic  Researches,  London  1801,  vol.  1.  The  following  is  an  extract 
from  p.  33 : — "  Agreeably  to  the  preceding  analysis  of  letters,  if  I  were  to  adopt  a  new  mode  of  EnylUh  ortho- 
graphy,  I  should  write  Addison's  description  of  the  angel  in  the  following  manner,  distinguishing  the  simple 
breathing,  or  first  elements,  which  We  cannot  invariably  omit,  by  a  perpendicular  line  over  the  first  or  second 
vowel."     (In  'sm'  for  tome,  and  <sch'  svxh,  the  vowel  is  understood  after  s,  as  in  Sanscrit.) 

"  So  hwcn  sm  ^njel,  bai  divain  c&m&nd 

Widh  raisin  tempests  sh^cs  a  gilti  land, 

Sch  az  S,v  I6t  6r'  p4l  Britanya  p&st, 

G41m  and  sirin  hi  draivE  dhi  fyuryas  bl&at. 

And,  pliz'd  dh' ilmaitii  ftrders  tu  perf6rm. 

Raids  in  dhi  hwerlwind  and  dairects  dhi  stftrm." 

f  The  same  author  thinks  that  Sanscrit  dzh,  tah,  becoming  y,  and  that  <&  became  Qreek  k  and  Persian  kh — 
thus  tnking,  as  we  believe,  the  younger  for  the  older,  and  reveiising  the- course  of  the  transmutation. 


Wr 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


r.j 


200.  Jf  Welsh  rh  ia  made  sonant,  it  will  bear  considerable  resemblance  to  Slavonic  r:^ 
wbich,  in  Bohemian  is  both  sonant  and  surd,  although  unacknowledged.  It  is  a  trilled  r 
with  a  concurrent  buz  very  like  French  j— itself  the  aspirate  of  some  variety  of  d.  The 
hypothesis  is  here  offered,  that  this  sound  is  due  to  an  attempt  to  vocalise  rh,  and  it  is 
acknowledged  to  be  a  philolbgic  analogue  of  r,  as  in  Polish,  Rzym  Rome,  Bohemian,  R'egor^ 
Gregory,  Bedr'ich  Frederic. 

201.  In  the  consonant  scheme  of  the  Penny  Cyclopaedia,  (1833,  Vol.  I,  p.  380,  by  Prof. 
T.  H.  Key,)  b,  bh,  p,  ph,  are  arranged  around  the  bottom  of  a  cube,  one  at  each  angle ; 
the  dentals  around  the  middle,  and  the  gutturals  around  the  top;  so  that  d  is  above  b, 
and  cay  above  d,  the  letters  on  the  angles  being 

b        p  d        t  g        c 

bh      ph  dh      th  gh      ch  =  x 

The  silibants  are  arranged  in  an  independent  class,  and  the  "liquids"  r,  I,  m,  n,—a.  very 
objectionable  arrangement,  for  the  omitted  wh  and  ng  are  as  important  as  ph  and  n;  and 
ph,  f,  th,  s,  sh,  form  a  regular  gradation  of  aspirates  going  back  from  the  lips.  An  octa- 
gonal figure  would  have  given  several  better  arrangements,  of  which  the  following  is  one — 

wh  1      Ih  y     yh 


w 


m- 
b- 


-mh 
-bh 


n- 
d- 


P     V^ 


th 


-nh 
-dh 


ng- 


r 


ch 


-ngh 
-gh 


*  A  fact  first  noticed  (Jan.  29th,  1858,)  whilst  constrocting  the  foregoing  scheme  for  this  essay,  and  trying  the 
vocal  effect  of  its  constituents.  Mr.  Ellis  (ms.)  calls  attention  to  the  following  relations,  the  sounds  represented 
ahove  z  and  zh  being  sonant — 

rh  rh  trh  zrh 

■  z  •  ah  ih 


60 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


a''   i 


.J     .  ,  PHASES    OF   WORDS. 

Copious  even  to  excess,  as  is  the  literary  labor  of  our  ago,  and  ever  seeking  new  topics,  new  methods  of  verifying  old 
ones;  there  are  yet  subifl"*!  to  be  found,  either  not  touched  upon  at  all,  or  scantily  and  incidentally  treated,  without  due 
regard  to  their  proper  value.  In  the  great  domain  of  natural  history  and  the  physical  sciences,  the  rapid  growth  of 
knowledge,  and  its  subjection  to  new  laws  and  generalisations,  have  created  the  need  of  fresh  divitions  in  every  part;  of 
altered  nomenclature,  and  particular  treatUea  on  topics,  the  increasing  importance  of  which  compels  this  separation. — 
Edinburgh  Review. 

202.  The  elements  thus  far  discussed  afford  sufficient  material  for  an  elucidation  of  the 
mode  of  their  employment  in  speech,  and  the  causes  which  influence  the  physiognomy  of 
words.  Several  chapters  will  now  be  devoted  to  the  phonetic  and  etymologic  subject  of 
the  Phases  of  Words.  Tliere  are  four  phases  ofvx)rd» — Metdtli^sis,  or  transposition;  Epen- 
thesis,  or  increase;  E'cthesis,  or  elision;  and  Andthesis,  or  mutation. 

METATHESIS. 

203.  Rapidity  of  utterance  requires  that  in  pronouncing  the  sequents  LA,  LI,  PL-,  PB-, 
the  cavity  of  the  mouth  must  be  set  for  A,  I,  before  the  L  is  formed,  and  the  tongue  be 
placed  for  L,  R,  before  the  P  is  formed,  as  in  saying  pl-ay,  ta-bl;  pr-ay,  ta-pr.  This  may 
cause  the  elements  to  be  displaced,  that  which  should  be  \^ai  getting  the  first  place,  by  a 
physical  process.  This  is  partially  recognised  in  Sanscrit  orthography,  where  tig  (to  strike) 
is  written  with  the  vowel  character  preceding  that  for  t,  as  if  itg,  but  read  tig. 

204.  The  mental  image  of  a  word  being  a  whole,  and  its  broken  elements  and  syllables 
a  succession  of  parts,  these  may  be  confounded  in  the  emission  by  a  mental  process — an 
accident  of  a  kind  which  sometimes  happens  in  writing.  We  adopt  the  mark-(x)  used 
by  Dr.  Tschirschnitz*  to  indicate  metathesis.  The  following  arc  examples :  Ang.  brid,  a 
bird;  acsian  and  ascian,  to  ask;  Eng.  dial,  gers,  grass. 

Croatian,    strok    krap    mleko    brad  a. 

X  X  X  X 

English,      stork     carp     milk    beard. 

EPEN7HESIS. 

205.  Epenthesis  is  tlie  lengthening  of  a  word,  as  by  the  use  of  affixes,  whether  prefixes 
or  suffixes.  Ne-ar  is  an  old  comparative  meaning  more  nigh,  but  the  suffix  being  forgotten, 
the  word  acquired  a  positive  sense,  with  a  double  comparative  in  ne-ar-er.  In  old  high 
German,  sacc-lin-chin  is  a  double  diminutive  of  sack ;  and  esel-in-chi-1-in  may  be  a  triple 

*  Nat^rkunde  der  rpr^chlaute  darstellend  daa  wiirterreich  der  deiitscben  rpraohe  n&oh  lauten  und  begrifien 
nat&rwissenschaftliGh  bcgriindet  und  geordnet.     Breslau,  1841.     800  pp.     8vo. 


ANALYTIC  OKTHOGRAPHY. 


SI 


or  quadruple  diminutive  of  a*«,  nithough  it  is  more  probable  that  in  (in  one  or  both  cases) 
is  a  feminine  sign. 

206.  A  consotiant  is  sametmies  imerted  as  a  fulcrum  between  vowels,  as  in  witti-c-ism, 
ego-t-ism,  fiTj-xeu,  or  a  vowel  between  consonants,  as  in  the  Hauaian  piladel-e-pia  for  Phi- 
\a,deJphi&.  Among  the  causes  of  epenthesis  are  cycksis,  eduction,  and  itiductiaii.  Other 
causes  will  be  mentioned  in  later  chapters.  <      . 

CYCLESIS. 

207.  In  withdrawing  the  tongue  from  the  "palate,  if  it  is  done  with  a  cycloidal  motion, 
like  unrolling  it  from  the  tip  backwards,  t  may  be  followed  by  an  inserted  s,  as  in  German, 
or  by  bIi,  as  in  English;  and  d  may  be  followed  by  English  z,  as  in  Italian,  or  by  French 
j.  Germans  and  Italians  are  so  accustomed  to  it  that  they  corrupt  Latin  with  an  imagi- 
nary s  after  pure  t  in  words  like  nat-i-o  (nation,)  lect  i-o  (a  choosing,)  reading  natsio  and 
lectfiio. 

EDUCTION. 

208.  As  the  opening  of  the  nasal  passage  turns  D  into  N,  if  in  saying  ten  this  passage  is 
closed  before  the  voice  is  stopped,  'tend'  will  result;  and  from  tener  and  genus  (gener-is,) 
tender  and  gender  are  formed  by  the  eduction  of  d  from  u.  In  lantern  from  laterna,  the 
nasal  passage  is  allowed  to  open  before  the  t,  forming  n,  as  h  gives  rise  to  m  in  strabo, 
Ital.  strambo.  Other  examples  are,  number,  tremble,  lend,  salt,  thimble,  remember,  con- 
tempt, consumption.  Latin  huMiLis,  Eng.  humble,  Spanish  humilde.  In  the  French 
pivoine,  v  is  educed  from  o;  and  camphora  gives  the  German  kampfer  by  eduction,  and 
the  Slavonic  ka^er  by  the  absorption  of  m.  German  pfeffer  (pepper,)  pfad  (path,)  &c. 
Greek  Sappho,  Bacchus,  Matthew. 

209.  Educed  elements  are  not  inserted  in  the  sense  that  n  is  inserted  in  AlbaNcella, 
anciently  Albocella;  or  the  d  in  a(d)vance,  or  r  in  t(r)easury,  vag(r)ant,  Ta(r)tar,  as 
these  are  not  due  to  the  mechanical  action  of  the  organs. 

210.  In  examining  Spanish,  we  find  I  introduced  in  a  few  words,  as  in  viento  (wind,) 
from  ventus.  If  we  compare  Spanish  words  in  ve-  with  those  in  vi-,  we  find  that  the  lat- 
ter exceed  the  former  somewuut  in  number,  so  that  the  change  might  be  attributed  to  the 
influence  or  induction  of  a  larger  upon  a  smaller  class.  But  on  comparing  other  Spanish 
words,  as  tiempo  (time,)  from  tempus;  piel  from  pellls  (a  skin;)  diente  from  dentis  (of  a 
tooth ;)  we  find  that  the  forms  in  te-,  pe-,  de-,  greatly  exceed  those  in  ti-,  pi-,  di-. 

211.  Informing  tkesyUahU  pe-,  if  the  mouth  be  not  set  soon  enough  for  the  E,  the 
aperture  will  be  that  of  I,  which  sound  will  be  interposed  (as  in  these  examples)  as  an 
eduction  from  E.  In  the  same  manner,  on  the  labial  side  of  the  vowel  scale,  U  is  educed 
from  0,  as  in  passing  from  Latin  to  Italian  in  sonus  suoiw  (sound,)  soror  siurre  (sister,) 


52 


ANALYTIC  OBTHOGRAPHY. 


homo  uomo  (man.)  In  novus  nnovo  (new,)  the  Spanish  form  is  nuevo,  where,  after  the 
eduction,  the  0  passed  by  transcesaion  to  E.  Compare  corpus  cuer^to,  bonus  bueno,  j*  fonte* 
fuente.  In  corfum  (a  hide,)  Italian  cuqjo,  U  is  educed  from  0,  r  is  elided,  and  i  closes  to 
its  liquid  congener. 

212.  Eduction  may  preserve  the  length  of  a  xioord,  and  be  spontaneously  used  for  this  pur- 
pose when  the  loss  of  a  consonant  would  shorten  it,  as  in  Latin  \  corde  (heart)  Italian 
cuore;  CORIUM  ctwjo,  &c. 

213.  TJie  French  inverse  diphthong  oi  probably  arose  eductively  after  labials,  as  in  poire 
(pear,)  which  is  nearly  pwar,  or  in  Latin  letters  pv'ar  ;  voie  (a  road,)  pois  (pea,  s  silent,) 
quoi  (what,)  moine  (monk,)  mmns  (less,)  :=mv'a,  with  a  in  «<  nasal ;  bois  {wood,)  foie  (liver.) 
After  being  thus  formed,  the  use  of  this  oi  would  be  extended,  as  in  oindre  (to  anoint,) 
=v'A,Dii;  croitre  (to  grow,)  =CRV'ATU.f 

INDUCTION. 

214.  Induction  is  the  influence  of  largei-  classes  of  words  upon  smaller  ones,  causing  uni- 
formity, and  regularity  in  grammatic  inflections.  It  may  lengthen,  shorten,  or  other- 
wise vary  words.  Thus  clift  is  formed  from  cliff  by  the  induction  of  words  like  lift,  drift, 
which  exceed  those  in  -iff.  Similarly,  the  -tion  termination  carries  with  it  ocean  and  phy- 
sician; -idge  of  carriage,  marriage,  porridge,  controls  the  old  English  -age  termination  once 
heard  in  selvage,  garbage,  baggage,  privilege,  &c.,  and  dotard,  wisard,  &c.,  have  induced 
SpaniarcJ,  and  the  vulgar  8cholarc2. 

215.  Italian  prefers  English  y  to  Z  in  certain  places,  and  introduces  it  instead,  as  in 
plumbu"  (lead)  jpiowiio;  planus  (plain)  pa^M),  Spanish //awo  (ljano,  dropping  2>,)  Neapolitan 
chiano,  with  a  cay,  not  transmuted  from  the  p  oi  piano,  but  educed  from  the  J. 

216.  Alliteration  is  a  variety  of  induction  in  which  an  element  suggests  its  repetition,  as 
in  peRdlx,  Fr.  perdrix,  Eng.  partridge;  Latin  amiTa,  Fr.  <a"<e;  Eng.  pitapat,  slipslop,  &c. 

217.  Beduplication  is  a  variety  of  alliteration  common  in  Greek,  and  less  so  in  Latin. 

218.  There  is  an  apparent  interchange  of  initial  E  and  S  between  French  and  English, 
which  cannot  be  accounted  for  on  any  theory  of  the  elements.    It  occurs  in 

etrange        epagneul        epeler        ete"dard        ecosse 

strange        spaniel  spell  standard        Scotland 

*  It  is  often  necessary  to  use  and  indicate  the  inflection  of  a  word,  and  a  mark  ( |-)  will  be  adopted  for  this  par- 
pose,  in  which  the  little  directing  branch  is  directed  towards  the  graph  (glyph)  or  written  word.  Dialectic  forms 
will  be  marked  with  (j  )  an  allied  figure,  the  directing  mark  being  turned  away,  as  in  curds,  1  cruds.  It  is  often 
inconvenient  to  give  the  meanings  of  illustrative  words,  and  deceptive  to  allow  one  meaning  to  stand  for  several 
cognates,  hence  the  mark  (\)  will  indicate  that  the  meaning  of  several  cognates  is  not  quite  identic,  as  in  beam, 
German  \baum — meaning  tree.     These  marks  are  made  from  the  dagger  of  the  printers. 

f  This  view,  that  o  in  oie  is  a  coalcscent,  wants  confirmation,  as,  from  want  of  opportunity,  it  has  not  been 
examined  in  nature  for  ten  years. 


ANALYTIC  UHTUOORAPUr. 


53 


In  comparing  the  first  pair  with  the  Latin  original  extraneus,  we  find  that  ca  of  £X  han 
been  elided  from  the  French,  and  ec  from  the  English  form,  so  that  this  apparent  inter- 
change is  an  example  oi  elision.     But  this  will  not  account  for  the  next  forms. 

219.  In  Spanish  (which  difiers  from  Italian  in  this  feature)  initial  S  is  not  followed  by 
some  consonants  (f,  p,  v,  m,  1,  n,  d,  g,  c,  q);  but  as  es  followed  by  c  &c.  is  a  common  ini- 
tial combination,  there  is  a  feeling  that  the  initial  S  in  SC-,  &c.,  ought  to  make  a  distinct 
syllable,  a  feeling  which  is  realised  by  prefixing  e-,  whence  |-  scorpIon-is  became  eacorpion, 
species  eapecief  &c. 

220.  This  inoompaiibUity  of  certain  sequents  occurs  to  a  less  extent  in  French,  in  which, 
although  words  commencing  with  sp-,  sc-,  st-,  exist,  there  is  a  tendency  to  prefix  £-,  form- 
ing 6sp-,  6so-,  ^st-,  and  the  syllable  being  attained,  the  next  tendency  is  to  get  rid  of  the 
S,  which  was  an  unstable  element,  even  in  Latin.  This  accounts  for  the  following  French 
forms,  none  of  which  are  examples  of  a  transmutation  of  S  to  E. 

species        stomachus        spirltus        stabulu" 
espece         estomac  esprit  6..tab  . 

Hungarian  has  o  similarly  prefixed  in  ostoba  (stupid)  and  oskda  (school,)  adapted  from  the 
Latin. 


CHAPTER  X. 


EUSION. 

Such  a  renovation  and  extension  of  the  reform  of  philosophy  appears  to  belong  peculiarly  to  our  avn  time.  Wo  may 
discern  no  few  or  doubtful  presages  of  its  approach ;  and  an  attempt  to  give  form  and  oonnoxioa  to  the  elements  of  such 
a  scheme  cannot  now  be  considered  premature. — Wheteell,  Pref.  to  Hist,  of  the  Inductive  Sciences. 

§  22L  Elision  is  a  prominent  agent  in  breaking  up  by  an  organic  process,  the  forms  of 
words  as  built  up  by  a  menial  process,  and  it  causes  much  difficulty  in  etymologic  inves- 
tigations. In  Anglish  it  causes  al  to  mean  an  awl  and  an  eel,  by  reducing  the  Latin  AcuLa 
and  AngviLla  to  the  same  dimensions.  The  German  zetlel  (=  tsctl)  as  a  note  or  billet,  is 
cut  down  from  sGIDuLa,  and  as  the  (Min  or  warp  in  weaving — from  CATEnuLa  a  little 
(catena)  chain,  preserved  also  in  the  German  hette. 

222.  Some  nations  ry'ect  parts  of  words  which  others  retain,  causing  difierences  in  lan- 
guages of  the  same  stock,  as  Welsh  and  Irish.  The  English  four,  Welsh  pedwar  (e  in  met, 
Eng.  to)  and  Irish  cathar  (each  a  in  at,)  bear  so  little  resemblance  to  each  other,  that  with- 
out their  history,  it  would  be  rash  to  consider  them  cognates.  They  are,  moreover,  cited 
8     . 


61 


ANALYTIC  ORTUOGRAPUr. 


|,^j;;/ 
H'.' 


ill 


I' I 


U 


erroneously  for  the  transmutation  of  cay  and  j),  as  Italian  piano  and  Neapolitan  chiano 
(kiano,  §  215)  might  be  cited  for  the  same  purpose.*  The  English  triliteral  for  /our, 
stands  in  the  Latin  qVatuOR;  Welsh  takes  a  different  portion — qVATVOR;  whilst  Irish 
claims  the  initial — QvATvOR. 

223.  T/io  Latin  qVINqVe  is  older  than  the  Sanscrit  and  Zend  pantahan  (five.)  It  gives 
the  Welsh  ]}ymp,  Aeolic  Greek  nifjms  (by  turning  N  to  M  through  the  influence  of  P  formed 
from  V,)  and  nivrt,  probably  the  newer  form.  QVInQve  also  gives  the  Irish  cuig  (as  in 
coo,  t^-nite,)  which  on  account  of  retaining  both  gutturals,  is  purer  than  the  Welsh  and 
Greek  forms.     These  relations  will  appear  in  the  following  tables,  where  r  is  to  be  read 


as  English  sh. 


Latin   . 
Irish .  . 
Lithuanian 
Ceyloneae 
Sanscrit  . 
Armenian 
Persian 
Bengalee 
Wallachian 
Welsh  . 
Gothic . 
Greek  . 


Albanian 
Oscan  . 
Old  French 


k  . 
h  . 

tr 
tf 
tr  . 
tr, 


QVATUOR 

0  ..  a  0  ..  a  r 

e  t  u  .. 

a  t  ..  a 

a  t  u  a 
..   ..0  5 

ii  h  ..  a 

a  

..pa  t   .... 

..  p  e  d  w  a 

..  f   i  d  T  0 

fr  ..  ^  TT..  a  p  e 

j ..  ;r  e  a  u  ..  p  e 

0  ..  a  t    ..  .. 

..    P    B    T    ..  0 

..  p  e  t  ..  0  r 


r  1 

r  ay 

r 

r 

r 
r 
r 
r 

r 


r   .. 
R   A 


1 

ay 
an 


QVINQVE 

0  u  i  ..  g  ..  .. 

..pen   k 

..  p  a  ..  h 

..  p  a,.,  tr 

s             b  ..  1  0    0  ..  .. 

..  p  en  tr  ..  .. 

..  p  a,.,  tr ..  .• 

tr  ..  I  n  tr  ..  .. 

..  p  y  m  ..  p  .. 

..  f  i  m  ..  f  .. 

C             ..  n  i  fx  ..  7C  e 

f             ..  n  i  V  T   ..  s 

••    p    ^1  ••    B     «•  •• 

..   P   0  M  T    ..  I  S 

Fr.     0  ..  i"  ..  q 


m 

K^?'} 


224.  The  Latin  is  the  oldest  of  these  forms  of  four,  and  next  the  Irish  and  Lithuanian. 
The  Sanscrit  form  is  old  only  in  its  vowels,  in  which  it  is  equalled  by  the  modem  Persian, 
which  has  an  anomalous  h  probably  arising  from  a  transmutation  of  aspirates.  Of  five, 
the  Latin  form  is  the  oldest,  and  next  the  Irish  and  Lithuanian.  The  Lithuanian  keturi 
(fpur)  takes  the  guttural  in  the  first  syllable,  like  the  Irish,  and  in  the  second  the  labial, 

•  "  The  interchange  of  «  with  h,  and  of  k  with  p,  are  the  most  striking  cases.  .  .  .  There  are  scarcely  any 
WO',  ds  in  Irish  which  begin  with  p,  .  .  .  and  it  is  no  less  observable,  that  a  considerable  number  of  these  words, 
whose  initial  in  the  British  language  is  a  p,  begin  in  Irish  with  a  A,  or  as  they  constantly  write  it,  with  a  c." — 
Winning's  Manual  of  Comparative  Philology,  London,  1838,  p.  128-9. 

t  For  the  transmutation  of  cay  to  t,  compare  Doric  Tstvoz,  Ionic  Ksivoq  (he,  that;)  Latin  fasCebe,  French 
paiTre,  to  pasture.  The  Pehlvi,  Hindustani,  Deocan,  Oudzherat,  Mahratta,  and  Gipsy  forms,  closely  resemble 
the  Persian. 


ANALYTIC  ORTH0GKAPI1Y. 


56 


like  the  WelBh.    In  the  first  syllable  of  ;)c«/a  (five)  it  takes  the  labial  with  the  Welsh, 
and  in  the  second  the  guttural  with  the  Irish."* 

226.  The  Latin  qVI  (who)  is  pwy  in  Welsh  (with  p  educed  from  w,)  and  CI  in  Irish, 
Persian,  Turkish,  Hungarian,  French  (qui,)  and  Italian  (chi.)  Latin  eQ..Vus,  CaB-allus 
(horse)  Welsh  eb-ol,  English  ccb,  Gr.  (tttto;  and  txxoc,  Irish  ach.  The  Latin  aqva  gives  the 
Sanscrit  op,  the  Bhoetian  and  local  Spanish  aua,  the  Austrian  arh,  Lettish  akka  and 
Welsh  ac/i  and  aw.  The  Snnacrit  prat' Juimaa  (first)  gives  the  Greek  TtfuoTo;  and  Latin 
PRIMUS:  and  Latin  tempus  gives  to  English  time  and  ten»e  (through  om  irench  temp^,) 
the  m  being  assimilated  to  n  by  the  influence  of  s. 

226.  In  comparing  Latin  and  its  cognate  the  ancient  Oscan,  we  find  that  the  latter 
rejected  the  guttural  in  similar  cases,  and  used  P  instead  of  V; — neque  nep;  (}v  )S  pus; 
QVAM  pam;  qviddam  pidum;  QVis  pis;  qvi  piei.     {Mommsen,  Oskische  Studien,  184u-G.) 

227.  T1i£  nature  of  tJie  jlaiion  between  the  German  hlei  and  English  lea  i  may  bo 
understood  from  the  following  table: 


Oreek 

Latin 

Anglish 

Polish 

Wehh 

Danish 

German 

English 


P 

b 

P 
b 

b 


a 


m  educed  from  B. 
whence  a  hloom  of  metal. 


A  w  /9   ( 
LUmB 
1   0  m 
1    0   V     ..    .. 
1   w  m  ..   .. 

1  y and  lod  a  plummet. 

1  ei 

I  ea ..    d  ..       lode,  plumb,  plummet.^ 

There  is  a  Greek  form  /wXe^do^,  probably  newer,  because  the  V  (of  the  Latin  form)  is 
seldom  derivable  from  I,  but  often  from  Y. 

228.  Absorption  (eiseresis)  is  the  reverse  of  eduction,  and  is  a  kind  of  elision  in  which 
an  element  is  lost  when  two  belonging  to  the  same  contact  occur  together.  Thus  I  has  been 
absorbed  by  d  in  solder,  and  wi  by  p  in  the  Spanish  copilar  from  the  Latin  original  of  compile. 

*  "The  oombinations  gu-,  khu-,  or  gw-,  khw-,  require  investigation  phonetically.  Why  should  a  labial  after  a 
guttural  be  easy?  simply  because  of  the  case  of  preparation,  the  lips  being  quite  free  in  the  fir^t.  But  why 
insert  a  labial  between  the  guttural  and  vowel  ?  I  think  in  some  cases  to  keep  the  guttural  from  palatisation, — 
khwi  running  no  chance  of  falling  into  kjhi.  In  other  cases,  it  may  be  that  the  lips  leaving  the  throat  free,  the 
vowel  is  more  readily  prepared.  When  the  mouth  is  used  to  this  combination,  it  takes  to  it  readily.  Thus  bhel/ 
becomes  guel/,  but  why  does  hhaib'ling  become  gibelitn'  and  not  guilellJn'1 — You  assume  the  double  form  to  have 
been  the  more  ancient;  but  here  we  have  a  known  case  of  the  double  form  being  more  recent;  and  a  case  of  the 
single  guttural  being  more  recent  than  the  single  labial.  I  think  the  conclusions  of  §224  are  therefore  hazard- 
ous."— Ellis,  MS.  note. 

f  In  all  such  cases  as  the  last  two,  Mr.  J.  P.  Lesley  thinks  the  analogy  maintained  by  the  loss  of  a  labial  from  between 
the  vowels;  he  therefore  reads  b..Ie..i,  le..ad,  and  considers  the  full  or  typical  form  to  have  been  fioXi}^{d)8oz. 
Proceed.  Am,  Phil.  Soc,  Vol.  VII.  p.  134.  In  the  Old  English  of  the  Legenda  Auren,  the  metal  had  stands 
'  leed,'siTiED,  and  led  as  '  Icdde.' 


oC 


ANALYTIC   ORTHOGRAPHY. 


CIIAPTP]R  XI. 


<iijit 


MUTATION.  ,  ►     , 

La  formo  dos  mots  vftrio,  lour  osscnoo  DO  vario  jamais.— /?aroH  (fe  J/cci'an. 

§  229.  AmfhrKiN  or  Mutation  is  the  replacement  of  one  element  by  another.  It  is  of 
four  kinds:— 1,  Intermutation;  2,  Commutation;  3,  Permutation;  and  4,  Transmutation. 

230.  Intermutation  is  the  interchange  of  vowels,  which  may  take  place  in  three  modes, 

namely:  by 

Precession,  a  moving  forwards. 

Recession,  a  moving  backwards;  and 

Transcession,  a  moving  across. 

231.  PrcrenKiou  (  >  )  is  a  vowel  change  from  a  more  open  to  a  closer  position  of  the 
organs,  towards  the  lips  or  throat.     The  term  is  adopted  from  Crosby's  Greek  Grammar. 

232.  Revemon  (marked  <  )  is  the  reverse  of  precession,  and  is  much  less  common.  It 
is  the  change  from  one  vowel  to  another  on  the  same  side  of  the  vowel  scale,  as  from  Latin 
UhsUs  (a  bear)  to  Spanish  OsO;  Latin  dIgitUs,  Spanish  dEdO;  Latin  mIrabilis,  French 
raErveille,  English  mArvel;  Latin  lIngva,  Spanish  lEngua,  French  lA"gue. 

233.  Transcession  (marked  >^)  is  the  interchange  of  lip  and  throat  vowels  across  the 
vowel  scale,  as  between  U  and  I  in  food,  feed;  0,  E,  in  English  anow,  German  scJinee 
(=fNE;)  Latin  hOnus  (good)  bEne  (well.)  It  may  be  combined  with  precession  (x>  ) 
as  in  passing  from  O  to  I,  (a  rare  phase  as  in  roll,  reel;  dole,  deal;  German  ofir,  English 
car;)  and  from  E  to  U;  or  with  recession  (x  < )  as  in  passing  from  I  to  0,  and  from  U  to  E, 
these  three  phases  being  extremely  rare. 

234.  Anallaxis  is  the  change  from  one  clement  to  ttoo  others,  one  of  which  stands  on 
each  side  of  it.  As  E  stands  between  A  and  I  (§  238)  it  may  happen  that  in  the  attempt 
to  produce  it,  the  organs  may  fall  successively  into  the  positions  on  each  side  of  it,  pro- 
ducing A-I,  or  (in  case  the  I  is  coalesced)  JE,  as  in  the  German  mehr  echnee  (more  snow) 
which  becomes  mai  scJmai  in  low  Suabian.*  The  following  are  examples  from  ancient 
and  modern  geographical  names,  assuming  that  the  derived  forms  have  been  diphthongal 
at  some  period — 

ebEi.linu'"  Baillo,    bEthsan  Bai'son,    mentEsa  Bentaez. 

235.  Upon  the  lahial  &ide,  0  becomes  A-U  or  AV,  as  in  sonus  sound;  old  Suab.  lob, 
German  laub;  Ger.  korn,  melone,  Austrian  Teaum,  melaun;*  French  bo°t6,  English  hounty; 

*  WocTier,  Allgemeinc  Phonologie,  Stuttgart,  1841,  p.  244-5. 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPnY. 


6f 


English  bow  nnd  bote,  and  in  the  Irish  dialect  of  English,  where  bold,  hold,  cold,  &c.,  bc< 
come  howld,  &c.,  inOuenced  hy  I. 

236.  Reversed  a N<(/Zaxt«  appears  in  the  SwcdiHh  JAg  compared  with  Latin  Ego  (I,)  and 
in  the  modern  lAlea,  from  the  ancient  YAjJEA.    The  following  are  Rliaetian  examplco — 

tErra  ilAra  earth,    yErmis  vIArm  worm,    vEsi'A  vIAspra  tca»p. 
"  Some  words  that  might  be  supposed  to  be  under  Wa  [English  w,  (t  in  far,']  ore  to  bo 
found  under  0,  as  the  syllable  wa  is  often  pronounced  like  o,  and  o  like  wn."     {Daraija, 
Otshipwe  Dictionary.)     The  latter  [o-^^wn,  §  2i5,)  is  an  example  of  reversed  anallaxis,  the 
former  (mw-ko)  of  metallaxis. 

237.  Metdllaxia  is  the  replacement  of  two  elements  by  one  that  is  intermediate,  being 
the  reverse  of  anallaxis.  It  occurs  in  passing  from  AI  to  E  and  from  AU  to  0,  os  in 
Latin  bal-ZEna,  Italian  balEna  (a  whale,)  Latin  cA  VsA,  (a  cause,)  Italian  cOsa,  French 
chOse ;  Latin  cA' Vdex  and  cOdex  (a  stem.) 

238.  The  following  tables  of  the  aflinities  of  the  primary  vowels  may  be  used  in  study- 
ing intcrmutation.  In  the  second  one  the  complementary  vowels  arc  placed;  in  the  third, 
the  close  of  the  organs  to  French  u  is  indicated,  and  the  probable  manner  in  which  the 
letter  Y  was  suggested  from  its  relations  to  the  vowels  V  {po)  and  I. 

•  krm 

Owe  v'Ein 

,     ,       .     ,  pVll  machine 


A 


A 

awe 

urn 

0 

E 

V 

I 

0 
E 

V 

I 

239.  Intermutatton  being  mostly  in  the  closing  direction,  when  U  and  I  are  reached,  the 
recession  continuing,  U  may  become  the  labial,  and  I  the  guttural  coalcscent.  But  let  the 
vowel  of  the  German  Icuh  (coo,  a  cow)  be  closed  to  English  w,  and  the  result  (cw  in  qu-een) 
is  hardly  pronounceable  until  a  voicel  is  interposed,  when  the  English  form  cow  appears. 

240.  If  Ihe  closed  upon  sufficiently  to  form  the  guttural  coalescent,  this  mugt  be  aided 
in  a  similar  manner  by  a  vowel,  for  coalescents  appear  in  no  other  manner  in  English. 
Hence  the  French  cri,  thus  treated  becomes  cry,  (that  is,  in  Latin  letters  CRiE,)  hy  pre- 
ceaswn  and  epenthesis,  not  by  anallaxis. 

*  CastelH,  Worterbuch  der  Mundart  in  Oesterreich  unter  der  Enns.  Wien,  1847,  p.  13. 


M 


ANALYTIC   OKTIlOORAPUr. 


l»li 


24 1 .  T/ir  i-iHilcMieiil  in  the  prlncipnl  clement  of  a  diphthong.  In  EUenic  (Modern  Greek) 
at;  hiiH  been  closed  to  afp  and  a'fi,  conHequently  it  has  no  coalesccnt,  and  consequently  it  in 

not  a  diphthong. 

242.  'f/iere  i'm  a  Hunt  fo  inter  mutation,  bo  that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  find  an  example 
of  a  departure  from  A  to  O  and  U,  and  a  return  through  I  and  £  to  A,  and  a  circuit  in 
the  opposite  direction  would  be  still  more  difficult. 

243.  Ah  a  V  ran  return  to  0,  and  A  J  to  E  by  metallaxis;  and  as  the  former  can  be- 
come U  and  the  latter  I  by  the  loss  of  A;  the  triplets  0,  U,  AV,  and  E,  I,  AJ,  furnish 
two  sets  of  elements  which  circulate  among  themselves,  apart  from  the  more  open  vowels. 
They  may  be  tabulated  thus: — 

0  B 

AV        U  1         AJ 

These  relations,  and  those  of  Y  and  German  6  are  shown  in  the  next  diagram. 

A 

0        6        E 

AV        U       Y         I        AJ 

244.  Anallaxis  ia  older  than  metallaxis,  and  vowels  precede  diphthongs,  so  that  when 
both  occur  in  cognate  words,  those  with  a  vowel  may  be  considered  the  older,  although 
immediately  derived  from  diphthongs.  Thus,  although  the  Spanish  col  and  French  chou 
(cabbage)  are  derived  from  the  Latin  cavils  (a  stalk,  cabbage,)  and  Greek  xauXbc  (a  stem,) 
the  original  vowel  was  A,  as  in  the  Sanscrit  rala5  (a  stem)  the  initial  of  which  is  less  old 
than  the  cay  of  the  other  forms. 

245.   MARKS  OP  MUTATION. 

•M-  indicates  an  interchange,  as  0-h-U,  P-i-i-B. 

•{^  or  H-  is  placed  between  a  derivation  and  its  primary,  the  crossed  end  indicating  the 
root,  or  earlier  form,    f  indicates  a  primary,  a  genuine  form,  or  a  true  voot. 

4.  indicates  a  false  original,  as  in  J^hine,  -^alione,  where  shine  is  not  the  true  original 
whence  «7M»ie  is  derived;  one  or  both  having  come  from  an  earlier  form.  The  Greek 
\xld!iu)  (to  make  a  noise)  is  not  the  true  original  of  clangy  clank,  because  the  gutturals  of 
these  are  older  than  the  palatal  ^.    The  following  are  examples  of  precession. 

246.  1.  Sanscrit  dvA;  2.  Danish  tO,  Irish  and  Persian  do,  old  English  two;  3.  Eng- 
lish two  (too;)  4  old  Nordisb  tvau;  2'  Belgian  twEe;  3'  German  zwie-,  Lettish  diwi; 
4'  German  zwei. 


ANALYTIC  ORTUOGRAPHY.  50 

4        3        2        1        2'        a'        4' 
DVA 
to  twoc 

•  two  zwio 

tvau  zwci 

247.  1.  Sanscrit  dAnta  (a  tooi a;)  i!.  Angl'ih  tOth;  3.  Greek  orJoy;  Gothic  tUnOus,  Eng. 
tooth; — 2'.  Latin  dEns;  3'.  Turkish  oTr  (de*)wh;)  Eng.  tine,  in  Latin  letters  tjrs. 

4        3        2         I        2'        S         4' 
dAnta 

tU0  Dif, 

—  tJFjU 

248.  ^  we  pronounce  ou  of  the  Greek  form  like  ou  in  roimd,  (he  word,  as  far  as  this 
part  is  concerned,  will  occupy  the  fourth  place  of  the  labial  side,  j,nu  be  a  newer  word 
than  tooih,  which  is  newer  than  toth,  although  the  use  of  o  in  spelling  tooth,  might  cause 
one  ignorant  of  the  sound,  to  suppose  the  Anglish  and  English  forms  to  be  of  equal  age. 

249.  Precession  is  commonly  confined  to  one  side  of  the  vowel  scale,  as  in  most  of  the 

following  examples. 

A  -K  0  -»-^  U  -K  AV. 

Latin  frater  (a  brother)  Gothic  br06or;  German  brlJder;  Welsh  brawd. 
Latin  sanus  (sane  =sen/)  Belg.  zOnd;  Angl.,  Dan.  sUnd;  Eng.  sound,  with  d  educed 
fromn.     Latin  pal  us;  Isl.  >:;<.,  Ang.  pul  a  pool. 

Lat.,  Sp.,  Ital.,  corO'na,  Belg.  krOon;  Rhaetian,  crUnna;  Eng.  crou^n. 

250.  A  -K  0  -}-  U  -»~  I 

Here  U,  instead  A  becoming  AV,  crosses  to  I.     Latin  fA'gus;  Angl.  bOc;  Ger.  bUche; 
Eng.  beech.     The  Rhaetian  fau  is  from  FAgUs  by  elision. 
Latin  illO'c,  illUc,  illlc  (thither.) 

251.  A  -J-  E  -}-  I  4^  ^. 

Latin  alA^cSr;  Fr.  lE'ger;  Sp.  llgero;  Eng.  light  (active.) 
Ang.  nAther;  Old  Eng.  nEther;  Eng.  neither;  and  (vulgarly,  as  if)  nigh-ther. 
Isl.  bad!  (both,)  old  high  German  bethe;  old  Fris.  bide;  German  be 'k' 
252.  A  regular  transition  has  occurred  in  English  from  A  thorough  h   ol,  and  the  se- 
condary vowel  of  it.    This  is  shown  by  the  fact,  that  the  character  *A,  a,  a,'  used  through- 
out the  world  with  its  proper  power  in  arm,  far,  has  in  English  acquired  the  power  and 
name  of  the  European  '  E,'  this  in  its  turn  has  been  confounded  with  the  European  '  1/ 
which,  by  a  similar  perversion,  has  become  the  partial  representative  of  an  epenthetic  A. 


60 


ANALYTIC  OBTUOGRAPUY. 


253.  The  following  are  examples  of  Latin  words  passing  through  French  to  English: — 


pax        paix 

peace 

race  mils 

raisi" 

raisin 

aqvila     aigle 

eagle 

1"  ration-Is 

raiso"    • 

reason 

tractare  traiter 

treat 

domlnare 

dominer 

domineer 

eatio       saiso" 

season 

factu" 

Mt 

feat 

macer     maigre 

meagre 

clarus 

clair,  ^cl6r 

clear 

acer        aigre 

eagre 

balatu" 

O.Ger.  bleat  bleat. 

Old  Ger.  slafan,  Goth,  slepan,  Eng.  sleep,  =sSLIp.  Ger.  bart,  Ang.  herd,  Eng.  beard, 
=BiiiD.  Latin  gravis,  Ehaetian  grev,  Eng.  grave,  grieve.  0.  French  spare,  Ang.  spere, 
0.  Fris.  spiri,  Eng.  spear.  Ger.  bahre,  Fr.  biere,  Eng.  bier,  =bir.  Latin  clavis,  Fr.  cle/ 
=CLE,  Persian  kelid.  Hung,  kults,  Eng.  key,  =ci.  Sp.  vinagre,  Fr.  vinaigre,  Eng.  vi- 
negar.   Latin  strata  via,  Old  Eng.  street,  =stret,  Eng.  street,  =strit. 

254.  The  apolofjists  of  English  spelling  will  observe,  that  these  English  words  with  I, 
derived  from  an  original  A  through  an  ai  or  e  spelling,  follow  neither,  but  represent  the 
derived  I  sound  in  the  six  modes  ai,  ea,  ee,  e-e,  ie,  ey: — raisin*  alone  taking  the  form  of 
plait  =  PLiT.  This  literary  irregularity  does  not  appear  in  Latin,  where  precession  is 
equally  present,  as  in  jacio  I  throw;  ejecto  and  ejicio  I  cast  out: — capio  I  take;  accepto 
I  accept;  accipio  I  receive,  whence  Iceep,  =cip.  « 

255.  The  name  of  the  English  people,  language  and  country,  affords  a  good  example  of 
this  change.  The  couatry  was  anglia,  the  adjective  and  personal  noun  of  which  was  an- 
GLictJS,  whence  the  Anglosaxon  language  will  be  called  Anglish.  The  A  of  this  became 
E  in  met  in  the  Germanic  dialects  and  old  English,  and  the  vowel  of  it  in  proper  /nglish, 
Ital.  Inglese,  &c.  And  as  ihglish  is  almost  as  old  as  Nglish,  we  find  these  words  spelt 
with  I  in  some  of  the  earliest  records  of  the  language.  Thus  Craik  (Sketches  of  Litera- 
ture, 1844 ;  1,  208)  quotes  the  date  1113  for 

"  Ingland  is  thjne  and  myne."         ' 

Yet  to  this  day,f  this  venerable  /nglish  language  is  ignored  out  of  deference  to  J^nglish, 
(from  which  many  of  its  forms  are  not  derived,)  and  to  the  dialects  of  Scotland,  Ireland, 
Yorkshire  and  Holland. 

256.  In  passing  from  Latin  to  Italian  and  Spanish,  E  is  usually  retained,  although  it 
may  become  I,  as  in — 

*  Walker's  pronunciation — but  now  pronounced  in  the  Irish  mode.  The  etymologic  spelling  (so  important  with 
litterateurs,)  being  rait-,  both  in  raisin  and  reason,  the  Irish  mode  was  ns  proper  for  the  latter  as  the  former— 
for  English  speech  and  writing  do  not  follow  the  same  laws. 

t  February  5th,  1858. 


m 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPUY. 


ei 


allevare 

Spanish 

alllviar 

to  alleviate 

creatura 

<( 

criatura 

creature 

deus 

« 

dios 

deity 

ecclesia 

it 

Iglesia,  Fr.  6gllse 

cJiurch 

ajqvalis 

(I 

Igual,  Old  Fr. 

Igale 

eqmd 

respondere         Ital. 

rrspondere 

to  respond 

securus 

It 

sicuro 

secure. 

257.  A  vowel  may 

be  preserved  / 

or  ages  unchanged. 

The  following  are  examples  of 

vowel  identity  between  Latin  and  English. 

obedio 

obey 

regno        I  reign 

vena         vein 

redimo 

redeem 

precor       I  pray 

velo          I  veil 

situs 

seat 

niarinus    marine 

verbena  vervain 

croc-io 

croak 

arma        arms 

puppis    poop. 

Here  the  etymologic  E  is  represented  by  ey,  ei,  ay,  ai;  etymologic  I  by  ee,  ea,  i-e,  (§  2u4,) 

and  etymologic  0,  U,  by  oa,  co.  Thus,  an  orthography  which  represents  different  forms  as 

similar,  must  represent  identic  forms  as  different,  and  must  still  be  considered  etymologic. 

258.  The  following  words  exhibit  an  identity  of  vowels  between  old  Frisian  and  English. 


fri 

free 

hi 

he 

swet 

sweat 

hir     ' 

Itere 

mi 

me 

wepn 

iceapon 

iven 

even 

thi 

tJiee 

hwer 

where 

del 

dale 

breker 

breaJcer 

tema 

tame 

hel 

hale 

stil 

steel 

niar 

near 

spiri 

sp&ir 

tron 

throne 

saterdi 

Saturday 

Here  a  genuine  I  is  represented  by  e,  ee,  e-e,  ea.  Here  me  is  torn  from  its  affinities  Latin  Mlhi, 
Italian  MI,  German  Mir,  to  associate  it  with  Anglish  me,  or  perhaps  French  me,  which  is 
neither  ME  nor  Ml. 

259.  The  vowel  relations  of  allied  languages  are  often  irregular,  as  in  the  following 
Flemish  and  English  examples,  which  have  the  same  vowel  (o  in  floor,  door,)  in  the 
Flemish,  but  dififerent  ones  in  English.  « 

voor     fore  sermoon  sermon  voor     for  doof      deaf 

loos        loose  soon        sun  oor        ear  droom  dream 

boom     boom  zoon        son  rood      red  stroo     straw. 

260.  A'J  and  A'V  have  arisen  in  the  English  hide  (a  skin)  and  German  haut,  from  the 

old  high  Ger.  HUT,  which  took  the  German  form  at  one  step,  whilst  the  English  form 
9 


62 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


i     ' 


m 


hiwi  to  pas8  through  the  Anglish  ht/d,  hid.    Hide  is  newer  than  haut,  but  not  derived  from 
it,  as  represented  in  dictionaries;  nor  is  bound  derived  from  bind. 

2G1.  A'V  becomes  awe  in  EngUsh,'hy  metallaxis  (§237)  varied  by  recession  from  the 
O  point.  C/iato  has  therefore  not  arisen  from  cheio,  but  from  a  form  like  the  German 
Iciiuen.  The  Saxon  (Lower  Saxon)  kluven  precedes  the  Anglish  clavian  (clawian)  and 
this  the  English  to  claw. 

262.  A  V  cannot  occur  be/ore  labials  in  English,  as  it  can  in  German.  Hence,  old  high 
German  bom  (tree,  pole,)  became  baum  in  German  by  anallaxis,  and  booni,  beam,  in 
English.  German  forms  like  the  following  are  unknown  in  English,  nor  are  they  the 
antecedents  of  the  English  equivalents,  although  often  quoted  as  such. 

haufe   Jieap  saum  seam  laub    (leaf)  haupt  head 

laufen  leap  saufen  sup  auf     up  raum    room. 

263.  A'V  cannot  occur  be/ore  <juttwals  in  English;  hence,  there  never  were  such  English 
words  as  bough,  plough,  with  a  guttural  following  a  diphthong,  for  the  moment  the  diph- 
thong appeared,  the  guttural  disappeared.  If  the  guttural  was  transmuted  into  /,  as  in 
rough,  there  could  still  be  no  diphthong  before  a  labial.  Richardson  quotes  Robert  of 
Gloucester's  plowstaf  as  his  earliest  citation  for  'plough/  and  for  bough,  a  line  of  Piers 

Ploughman  (1362.)  ' 

Thecr  soin  homes  bereth  leves,  and  some  bereth  none. 

In  the  same  work  doute  is  used;  Robert  of  Brunne  (1330)  has  doiited;  and  Robert  of 
Gloucester  used  doutless  about  the  year  1297.*  From  these  and  the  French  doute,  the 
modern  doubt  is  strictly  derived,  diphthongs  being  newer  than  vowels,  and  as  the  diph- 
thong could  not  be  formed  without  first  rejecting  the  b,  the  subsequent  representation  of 
this  rejected  consonant  was  a  mev;  literary  blunder. 


COMMUTATION. 

264.  Commutation  is  a  grammatic  interchange  of  elements,  as  in  the  Celtic  languages. 
Thus,  in  the  Gaelic,  in  writing  mor  (great)  and  ben  (mountain)  to  indicate  a  great  moun- 
tain, the  b  becomes  English  v,  giving  (in  English  spelling)  more-vane  instead  of  mare-bane. 
In  Irish,  mo  (my)  and  maxi  (son,)  the  a  as  in  what,  become,  when  used  together,  mo  naac, 
the  dotted  m  being  English  v.  Welsh  *eu  Brawd  (their  brother,)  dy  Frawd  (thy  brother.) 
fy  Mrawd  (my  brother.)  Here,  as  in  Chinese,  the  aflBnity  between  nasal  and  pure  (m,  b,) 
is  acknowledged  and  used  in  language. 

*  Shakespeare  alludes  to  a  dialect  or  pedantism  in  which  dooht  for  dmite  was  used,  and  from  which  the  h  was 
disappearing.  See  Love's  Labor  Lost,  Act  5,  So.  1,  1631 — "  lie  draweth  out  the  thred  of  his  verbofitie,  finer 
than  the  ftaple  of  his  argument.  I  abhor  fuch  phanaticall  phantafims.  .  .  fuch  rackers  of  ortagraphie,  as  to 
fpeake  dout  fiue,  when  he  Ihould  lay  doubt;  det,  when  he  fhould  pronounce  debt;  debt,  not  det;  be  clepeth  a 
calf,  oaufe;  halfe,  haufe:  neighbour  vacatur  nebour;  neigh  abreviated  ne:" 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


63 


265.  Maraud;  Welsh  mor  (the  sea,)  morawd  (a  seafaring,)  ei  Forawd  (his  seafaring,) 
which  suggests  Foray,  and  the  Irish  foraiih  a  journey ;  Old  French /orer  to /omf/e. 


PERMUTATION. 

266.  Permutation  is  the  intercJianye  of  consonants  of  the  same  contact,  and  the  well- 
known  Grimm's  Law,  is  a  permutation  analagous  to  the  law  of  the  vowels  already  stated. 

267.  B,  P,  F,  M,  &c.  Latin  FiBer,  Polish  hohx,  Eng.  ieaver,  Sw.  hafwQv — sketccr,  skiver, 
— lieu,  le/tenant,  lief, — gladiUs,  glave, — aBsentia,  Sp.  awsencia, — Angl.  oredh,  Eng.  breath, 
— Hungarian  kra&salni,  krapsalni,  kra»isalni,  to  s-cribble, — Greek  M^tu  and  Ilida,  German 
wit,  Eng.  w\i\i, — Latin  cuMulus,  Dan.  ho6,  Ger.  hau/e,  Eng.  heap, — Polish  iarioa,  Ger- 
man/arie,  color.  • 

268.  D,  T,  Th,  L,  N.  Swedish,  lite/t  and  lite/,  Eng.  litt/e,— Dan.  iolt,  Eng.  te«t,  Lat. 
aNima,  Sp.  aZma, — Rhaetian  fauZsch,  and  focZsch,  a  falchion, — Lat.  oDor,  Sp.  o?or, — Lat. 
perDix,  Ital.  penjic^e,  a  partridge, — Hungarian  \e<jy  (with  a  d)  and  leny,  being, — Ger. 
ding,  Sw.  <ing,  Eng.  //ting, — Eng.  thoxu,  Ger.  dorn,  Sw.  Dan.  torn.  The  American  tribes 
of  Me/iomonies  and  Assini&oi^is,  were  formerly  known  as  MaZominis  and  AssinipoiZs. 

269.  R,  S, &c.  Require,  requisition, — hurrah,  huzza, — raise,  rear, — jeer,  jest, — this,  these, 
— Ger.  frieren,  to  freeze, — Latin  Robur,  a  kind  of  oak,  Suber,  the  cork  oak.  In  French 
and  English,  »  between  two  vowels  usually  becomes  sonant,  as  in  misery,  deposit,  busy, 
the  sonancy  of  the  vowels  being  communicated  to  it. 

270.  As  Latin  was  without  th&  sound  of  sonant  s,  the  tendency  to  form  it  between  two 
vowels  had  to  take  another  course.  In  poetic  Latin  the  word  for  tree  was  arbos,  which 
in  the  regular  genitive  case  would  make  arhosis,  but  arboris  was  preferred,  and  the  con- 
stant presence  of  r  in  the  oblique  cases  induced  (§  214)  its  presence  in  the  nominative  ar- 
bor. Latin  j&s,  (brass,  pronounced  ice)  mms,  Gothic  ais,  aizis,  with  French- at  and  z.  Latin 
spes  (hope,  pronounced  space,  but  long,)  sperare  (to  hope.)  Nearly  parallel  with  these, 
are  the  permutations  of  the  true  palatals. 

271.  G,  C,  J,  Ng.  As  G  and  J  have  the  same  co-relation  as  B  and  V,  they  are  equally 
permutable,  as  in  regral,  royal, — (/arden,  2/ard, — Sp.  paryar,  Fr.  pa?/er,  to  pay, — Gr.  ;f««'j,cu, 
Ang.  greonan,  Eng.  yawn, — Old  Frisian  iest  and  </ast  a  ghosi.  In  vulgar  English  y  is 
educed  from  cay,  gay,  as  in  kind,  cow,  card,  pronounced  cj^end,  cja  v,  cjard. 

272.  The  Oreeh  x,  loses  its  aspiration  in  English,  as  in  ^do;  chaos, — ^si'j^w,  Gothic  lai</o, 
to  lick, — pyliy  gaW, — xinafM  (chrism,  and)  grrease.  Spanish  j  {g)  and  Latin  J,  C,  G,  are 
permutable  in  Sp.  enq/ar  (to  weary,)  Fr.  ennuyer;  Sp.  q^'ear,  to  eye,  o^le,  from  oCulus; 
leGlbilis,  Sp.  legfible.  The  Latin  '  J '  has  acquired  this  power  in  Spanish,  nearly  corresh 
ponding  to  the  conversion  of  ' '.    to  an  *  F'  power,  as  in  German,  where  v  is/. 


I 

I  I 


64 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


f 


5  Si-' 


CHAPTER  XII. 


TRANSMUTATION. 


IN  NOVA  FEBT  ANIMUS  MUTATAS  DICERE  FORMAS  CORPORA.  — Ooid. 

§  273.  Triimmutation  is  the  interchange  of  consonants  of  different  contacts.  It  is  due  to 
Otosis,  Assimilation,  Dissimilation,  Glottosis,  Metallaxis,  and  Anallaxis.  Its  importance 
entitles  it  to  a  distinct  chapter. 

274.  The  peculiarity  of  Latin,  Welsh,  and  English,  which  place  together  a  guttural  and 
a  labial  (§  222 — 4)  of  which  one  alone  can  be  used  and  permuted  in  some  other  languages, 
may  give  rise  to  many  aj^parent  transmutations,  as  in  the  Welsh  pedwar  (four)  and  Irish 
cathar  (already  cited,)  which  seem  to  present  a  transmutation  between  P  and  Cay. 

275.  Welsh  has  few  words  commencing  with  English  w,  but  so  many  with  gray  preceding 
it,  that  this  guttural  is  prefixed  by  induction  to  introduced  words  which  were  without  it. 
This  language  has  wine,  pine,  and  gioinc  (a  finch,)  and  the  following  examples  show  how 
new  words  might  arise  like  the  French  G(u)illaume  and  English  William  with  a  seeming 
labial  and  guttural  transmutation.  ^    -  ,        ' 

gward,  a  guard,  ward 

gwyrd,  verd-ant  _     ' 

gwyn  (white,)  wan 

gwae,  icoe,  Sp.  guay,  Lat.  vae!     ; 

gwallo,  Lat.  vallo,  to  wall 

gwlan,  Lat.  vellus,  loool 

276.  As  the  labial  vowel  U  and  guttural  I  are  interchangeable, .  have  an  intermediate 
in  Greek  Y,  this  has  had  a  tendency  to  induce  an  occasional  interchange  between  labials 
and  gutturals.*  This  partially  accounta  for  the  forms  Bdh-voi;  (acorn)  Latin  Glans: — 
AtiAoc  (wolf)  Latin  luPus.  In  ^uxoc  the  guttural  is  preceded  by  a  partially  guttural  vowel, 
and  in  the  Latin  form,  P  is  preceded  by  the  labial  U. 

277.  In  the  Belgian  hevrijd  and  gevrijd  (be-freed)  there  is  no  transmutation,  because  be- 
and  ge-  are  distinct  prefixes,  probably  present  in  DU<papov  and  Fkifapov  (eyelid)  from  ^Umiv 
(to  look,)  which  may  be  connected  with  Xd/iTrstv  (to  shine)  and  g-leam.  Compare  the  Ger- 
man Flimmern,  and  English  Glimmer.  The  stem  of  B-pd^io  and  K-pix-a  (to  ring,  c-rack)  is 
seen  in  ai)-ptr-/ja  (a  c-reaking.)  IJoTepo:  (which  of  the  two,)  Aeolic  Kdrspo^,  seem  to  have  a 
different  prefix,  to  a  stem  seen  in  the  Latin  uter,  with  the  same  meaning. 

*  Olivier,  Des  Sons  de  la  Parole.  Paris,  1844. 


gwin,  wtne         -  ■ 

gwinegar,  viiwgar  *•  r 

gwing,  a  wince,  a  winJe 
gwag,  a  vac-uum 
gwr,  gwyr,  Lat.  vir,  a  man 
gwarant,  giiarantee,  warrant. 


A 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


ft6 


278.  Tlie  Greek  axulov  is  considered  the  original  of  the  Latin  spolium  (booty;)  but  axuhv 
may  be  a  cognate  of  cutis  (a  skin,)  xoiJmTw  (to  hide,)  celo  (to  con-ceal;)  and  s-roL-iu°  may 
be  a  cognate  of  pellis  (a  skin.) 

OTOSIS. 

279.  Oibsl^  is  a  cluimje  in  words  due  to  a  misconception  of  the  true  sound,  influencing 
consonants  of  the  same  quality;  nasals,  aspirates,  sonants,  and  surds,  generally  retaining 
these  phases  in  their  new  position.  The  word  is  formed  from  «iroc,  the  genitive  case 
of  od;  (the  ear.) 

280.  The  French  nasal  vowels  recall  the  sounds  which  most  nearly  resemble  them  in 
English,  as  m,  n,  ng.  This  has  turned  -o"  into  -oon,  as  in  pontoon,  bassoon,  dragoon. 
— M4H-N.  Eng.  bosom,  Ger.  busen,  Latin  Mespihi""  (a  medlar,)  Ital.  vjespola. 

281.  H-M-S.  Gr.  hXiioj^  Latin  Sallx,  willow, — feio,  Super,  over.  In  Hebrew,  H  occurs 
final,  but  becomes  S  in  Greek  and  Latin,  partly  by  induction  and  partly  by  otosis.  Hence, 
the  double  forms  Jona/i  and  Jonas;  Jeremia/i  and  Jeremias  (with  English  y  as  initial,) 
perhaps  inductively  aided  by  Greek  names  in  -as.  There  is  a  final  Sanscrit  aspirate 
which  has  a  particular  character,  neither  h  nor  s.  This  loas  probctbly  h  pronounced  with 
the  mouth  partially  closed,  causing  the  breath  to  strike  the  palate  and  teeth,  thus  giving 
an  effect  resembling  s.  As  heard  by  us  in  modern  Bengalee,  it  sounded  like  a  short 
abrupt  h.  We  have  proposed  the  figure  5  for  it,  as  this  is  sufficiently  like  s,  whilst  it 
resembles  one  of  the  forms  of  German  capital  h. — H-h-F.  Archaic  Latin  Fircus,  Lat. 
Hircus  (a  goat.) 

282.  Sh-H-S,  H.  A  person  unacquainted  with  the  English  sibilant  sh,  would  be  likely 
to  refer  it  to  s  or  A,  or  to  some  other  surd  aspirate  he  might  be  familiar  with.  Hence, 
the  English  word  sheep  has  become  Hipa  in  Hauaian,  and  Si?  in  Penobscot.  For  a  similar 
reason  the  peculiar  *  cerebral'  s  of  the  Sanscrit  word  for  six  became  7i  in  the  Greek  If, 
and  a  in  the  Latin  Sex;  whilst  the  Sanscrit  word  (said  to  contain  English  sh,  and  w) 
shwashura  became  (if  indeed  this  is  the  oldest  form,)  Greek  lxu/>6c  (brother-in-law)  and 
Latin  socer.  Having  the  original  element  ah,  the  Germans  preserved  it  in  their  form 
schwager,  and  the  Hungarians  (s  as  eh)  in  sogor.  The  Latin  took  a  by  induction  in 
both  cases,  because  as  an  initial,  a  occurs  about  twenty  times  as  often  as  7i.  The  onj  of 
the  Latin  soger  is  probably  older  than  the  palatal  of  the  oriental  form,  which  may  have 
been  shwacura  originally. 

283.  Ch^-+F.  WJien  the  old  English  ch  {x)  began  to  fall  into  disuse,  its  sound  was  either 
dropped,  as  in  \}\ough,  ihvo\xgh,  plow,  not,  or  confounded  with  /,  as  in  tough,  cough,  rough, 
enough.  So  p^iy,  which  by  permutation  gave  Gall  and  Colic  to  English,  gave  Fel  (gall) 
to  Latin.    Contrariwise,  the  English  craft,  soft,  after,  are  the  Belgian  kracLt,  zacht,  achter. 


66 


ANALYTIC  ORTnOORAPHT. 


In 


284.  Th-M-Ch,  Ph,  S.  Gr.  opvil,  gen.  opvteo^  (a  bird,)  Doric  dpvi^,  gen.  opt^iXoi:, — 0M(o 
and  SMtij,  to  bruise, — Doric  al'dua  for  aBdva,  Minerva, — -loc  for  Stb^  a  god,  Eng.  Theodore 
Ru8s.  Fedor.  D-m-G,  B.  Doric  J«  for  fu,  the  earth;  but  ov6(foz  (darkness)  for  )-vofoc  is  by 
assimilation.  Aeolic  Ihltplv  for  Jdiflv  a  dolphin, — adMIia).ov  for  adNJukov  a  sandal, — Ital. 
coDardo  (a  coward,)  Sp.  coBardo,  partly  influenced  by  o. 

285.  G-M-B, — C-M-P.  r^X"'^  Attic  li)ji'/u)v  pennyroyal, — //tiavoc  and  A'uavoc  a  bean. 

286.  T-M-P,  C.  Aeolic  afldutov  for  a  Tddcov  a  race  course, — Latin  VeTulus  (old,)  Italian 
veCchio.  Although  T  is  more  easily  formed  than  Cay,  if  the  number  of  the  latter  greatly 
predominates  over  the  former,  the  rare  occurrence  of  Cay  derived  from  T  may  be  the 
result.  In  a  paragraph  of  Hauaian  containing  160  consonants,  28  per  cent,  were  cay, 
whilst  a  Latin  paragraph  furnished  about  9  per  cent.  The  former  example  contained  no 
T,  so  that  any  word  coming  in  with  this  sound  would  be  likely  to  fall  into  cay  by  induction. 

ASSIMILATION. 

287.  Assimilation  is  the  cJiange  of  a  consonant  to  adapt  it  to  another  with  which  it  is 
brought  in  contact.  The  n  of  in  becomes  m  before  jp,  h,  m,  by  assimilation,  as  in  im-plore, 
im-bue,  ira-mense,  but  remains  unaltered  before  /,  v,  w,  as  in  in-fect,  in-vert,  in-wall.  a. 
Latin  n  always  became  ng  before  gay,  cay,  ch,  q,  as  in  in'^certus,  Tn'genuus,  an'chlses,  in'qviro, 
(§  101)  these  words  being  cited  for  it  by  the  ancients. 

288.  Latin  had  a  peculiarity  still  preserved  in  Italian,  of  doubling  a  consonant  as  tt  in 
attendo,  and  nn  in  annuncio.  One  of  these  consonants  is  in  most  cases  absorbed  in  Eng- 
lish, as  in  attend,  announce,  in  writing  which,  the  second  character  is  a  mark  of  shortness 
for  the  preceding  vowel.  There  is  but  one  /in  a  flfi  n  i  ty,  Fr.  a  flf  i  n  i  1 6,  Sp.  a  f  i  n  d  a  d, 
but  the  Spanish  alone  shows  its  etymologic  relation  to  the  Latin  affinitas  (gen.  affinitat-is) 
and  Italian  a  f  f  i  n  i  t  a,  because  there  is  no  dissimulation  about  it,  no  misrepresentation, 
it  pretends  to  nothing  but  what  it  is  entitled  to,  and  claims  no  addition  but  that  of  voca- 
lity  for  the  t. 

289.  If  'accept  were  a  Latin  word,  it  would  be  written  axept;  but  its  prefix  ad,  (which 
became  ac  before  cay  in  ac'^cepto,)  became  s  before  an  a  sound,  as  in  as-s6ciare  (to  associ- 
ate,) so  that  assept  would  have  been  the  Latin  form  of  the  English  word,  and  in  fact,  the 
true  English  form,  because  ad-  stands  in  inscriptions  unassimilated,  as  in  adcenscs,  ad- 
FECTUS,  and  as  the  assimilation  was  a  departure  from  the  true  form  which  could  not  be 
transplanted  into  English,  the  attempt  should  not  have  been  made. 


dissimilation. 
290.  Dissimilation  ia  the  reverse  of  assimilation.     It  prevents  unusual  combinations,  and 
is  due  to  induction.     MF  are  incompatible  sequents  in  Italian  and  Spanish,  where  they 


ANALYTIC  OKTHOGRAPHY. 


«7 


break  the  law  of  assimilation  and  transmute  (§  273)  m  to  n,  turning  nympha,  symphonia, 
into  ninfa,  ain/onia. 

291.  In  Italkm  (as  in  Latin)  mm  are  compatibles,  as  m  commissione,  commismrio;  whilst 
in  SpanisI),  one  vi  is  dropped  from  comision,  comimrio,  as  in  the  English  eqtnvalents  com- 
miaslon,  commissary.  When  one  m  is  not  absorbed  in  Spanish,  the  n  is  unassimilated,  as 
in  conmoci-on  cotimiseracion,  conmemorar.  Dissimilation  occurred  in  Latin,  for  although 
w/ occurs  in  the  original  o( circumflex,  we  find  an-  for  am-  (ambi)  in  anfractus  (a  turn;) 
and  the  inscriptive  forms  circvnflexvs,  circvnvenio,  circvndata. 

292.  The  Oreeks  spontaneousli/ rejected  two  aspirates  in  certain  cases;  hence  0  in  0pi^ 
(hair)  became  T  in  the  genitive  case  Tfuxo;  in  consequence  of  the  presence  of  X-  So  Ifix^o 
(I  run)  is  dpizoj  in  the  future  tense;  and  Tpiifu}  (I  nurse)  is  Bpifot.  The  -ish  in  the 
words  Engl-ish,  Span-ish,"  seems  proper  in  Belg-ish,  with  gay;  but  if  corrupt  dzh  is  used, 
this  Belgish  will  give  way  to  Belgian  or  Belgic;  whilst  Bussish  is  rejected  for  Russian. 

293.  The  English  ordinal  suffix  -th  in  four-th,  nin-th,  is  -d  in  thir-d,  and  -t  in  fif-t,  six-t, 
in  the  speech  of  those  in  whom  the  language  instinct  has  not  been  effaced.  In  old  Eng- 
lish we  find  first,  second,  third,  fourth,  fift,  sixt,  seventh,  eight,  ninthe,  tenth, — eight  being 
due  to  the  aspirate  once  present  in  this  word,  which  with  its  loss,  could  take  th  in  eighth. 


GLOTTOSIS. 

294.  Olottbsis*  is  an  organic  change  to  facilitate  ease  in  utterance,  and  it  depends  greatly 
upon  the  number,  order,  and  frequency  of  occurrence,  of  the  consonants  concerned  in  it; 
practice  making  that  easy  in  one  language,  which  is  difiicult  for  those  who  speak  another. 

295.  Aa  the  base  of  the  tongiie  has  less  room  and  is  less  flexible  than  the  end,  it  is  more 
difficult  to  adapt  it  to  the  production  of  its  peculiar  consonants,  so  that  children  replace 
them  with  dentals  and  palatals,  saying  do  for  go,  and  til  for  kill. 

296.  The  cavity  of  the  mouth  being  set  for  the  following  vowel  whilst  the  consonant  is 
about  to  be  formed  (§  203,)  the  closer  aperture  required  by  the  vowels  of  key,  get,  gay,  af- 
ford so  little  room  for  the  action  required  to  produce  their  consonants,  that  there  is  a  ten- 
dency to  use  the  outer  portion  of  the  tongue,  which  is  thinner  and  more  flexible,  and  has 
more  room  in  the  outer  mouth.  This  action,  which  is  often  united  with  cyclesis  (§  207,) 
converts  gutturals  to  dentals  and  palatals,  particularly  before  I  and  E.  In  some  cases, 
where  orthography  is  not  properly  understood,  this  has  perverted  characters  made  for  gut- 
tural sounds,  to  enervated  powers  (usually  called  soft,)  in  various  modern  languages. 

*  Glottosis,  as  a  word,  is  formed  from  yXciTTa,  the  tongue,  by  analogy  with  certain  names  of  diseases,  (amau- 
rosis, pyrosis,  phlcgusis,) — this  being  frequently  as  great  a  defect  in  speech  as  stuttering,  which  is  classed  with 
diseases.  As  the  word  language  is  applied  to  speech  in  general,  because  the  tongue  (lingv^)  is  its  chief  implement, 
so  glottosis  is  proposed  for  organic  transmutation  between  all  the  contacts. 


68 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


I 


297.  Ckmxpare  GreeA;  Greer^e;  ore  ttxch;  haxh  bargre;  Latin  legibilis,  Fr.  lisible,  Eng.  le- 
(/ible.  The  Englisli  ttih  is  commonly  replaced  by  te  in  German  and  «/*  in  French,  as  in 
Lat.  Camera,  Eng.  c/tamber,  Ger.  dimmer,  Fr.  c7tambre.* 

298.  This  change  ia  widely  spread,  for  although  the  speech  of  different  countries  may 
vary  greatly,  its  expression  is  due  to  the  same  organs.  Volney  remarked  it  as  a  dialectic 
peculiarity  of  Arabic ;  and  Morrison  informs  those  who  wish  to  use  his  Chinese  Diction- 
ary, that  words  like  (c7t  in  chip,)  chang  vary  to  tsang;  and  that  h  in  the  Peking  dialect, 
"  before  e  and  i  is  pronounced  as  ch  and  ts;  thus  Icing  is  turned  into  ching,  and  keang  be- 
comes ts'eang."  Morrison  does  not  state  whether  k  becomes  tsJi  before  i,  and  te  before  c, 
with  any  degree  of  uniformity,  as  in  Russian,  where,  in  certain  inflexions,  k  becomes  ts 
before  i,  and  tsh  before  e.f 

299.  L  -M-  B.  These  two  consonants  are  made  so  near  the  same  point  that  they  are  rea- 
dily transmutable,  and  to  such  an  extent  in  Hauaian,  that  they  are  used  indiflferently. 
R  is  wanting  in  some  languages,  and  L  in  others. 


L-M-R. 
Sp.  milagro  miracle 

"    papel  paper 

"    peligro  peril 

sabel  sabre 

esclavo  Port,  escravo 
eneldo       "     endro  (dill.) 


a 


It 


S^H•T,  D. 
Ger.  hass  Juite 

"    aus  out 

"    weiss  white 

Dan.aadike  Ger.  essig,  (vinegar) 

Ger.  hat,  Dan.  har,  has 

Gr.    ^68ov  Lat.  rosa  rose. 


300.  Interchange  of  th,  sh,  zh,  r,  1,  n,  d,  t,  s,  between  ancient  and  modern  geographical 
names. 


ALAMATHA  Elamora 
PONTES        Ponches  Fr. 
ARAvsio      Orange 
CHARADRUS  Calandro 
CALiFFAE     Carif(6 


BERGUSIA  Balaguer 
LACARiA  Lancona 
ORONTES  Eluend 
METELis    Missil 
PALURA   Balasor. 


301.  In  consequence  of  the  projecting  jaws  and  teeth  (prognathism,  g  pronounced,)  of  the 

*  Mr.  Ellis  writes  several  notes,  the  purport  of  which  is,  that  "  tsh  descends  from  k  vi^  kj  historically,  and  dzh 
from  g  Ti&  gij,  as  also  tsh  dzh  descend  from  tj,  dj,  as  in  nature,  verdure.  ...  I  think  wo  can  as  well  helieve  fg  to  have 
become  tsh  in  Sanscrit  as  in  Italian.  .  .  .  Wallis  (1653)  analyses  sh,  zh,  tsh,  dzh,  into  s-j,  z-J,  t-j,  d-J,  and  Smith 
(1568)  shows  that  the  former  are  nearly  related  to  the  latter  in  sound.  .  .  .  Salesbury  (1547)  gives  si  as  the  near- 
est Welsh  for  sh,  resembling  it,  says  he,  as  copper  does  gold." 

f  Grimm's  Geschichto  der  Deutsohen  Sprache,  §382. 


r 


ANALYTIC  ORTIIOGRAPIIT. 


69 


African  race,  it  is  not  easy  to  place  the  tongue  in  thy  proper  position  for  making  ih,  even 
when  English  is  their  vernacular,  so  that  it  is  often  replaced  with  /  as  in  muth,  noffuiiif, 
&c.  This  renders  th  doubtful  as  an  African  element.  Shakespeare's  'Moor'  being  a 
negro,  his  name,  to  have  a  rational  form,  must  bo  Otello,  as  the  Italians  make  it. 

302.  There  are  four  or  five  times  m  many  Italian  words  in  pia-,  lia-,  chia-  (cA  as  k,)  as  in 
plo-,  fla-,  cla-,  showing  a  preference  for  the  former.  This  partiality  caused  the  elision  of 
I  and  the  insertion  by  induction  of  I  or  J,  rather  than  the  transmutation  of  /.  This 
from  Latin  produced  the  Italian  forms — 

FLAHMA    fiamma  fiame  pluma     piuma    phime 

CLARUS     chiaro     clear  planus   piano     plain 

PLANTA    pianta    plant  pluvia    pioggia   rain. 

803.  In  the  last  example  the  corrupt  g  (in  gem)  is  made  from  English  y  in  pluvja,  the 
V  being  lost,  and  the  second  *i'  inserted  to  aid  in  spelling  the  corrupt  g.  The  loss  of  V 
and  the  change  of  I  to  J  (as  in  passing  from  fil-i-al  to  fil-ial)  is  the  only  diflerenco  between 
the  ancient  geographical  name  salvia,  and  the  Italian  form  Sagliu=sx-LJA.  This  irre- 
gular Italian  orthography  disguises  the  close  relation  between  the  ancient  and  modern 
geographic  names — 


PAL-A-Ni-A  Ba-la-gna 

OL-U-US  6-glic 

PAL-Li-A  Pa-glia 

AL-Bi-Ni-A  al-be-gna 

Hos-Ti-Li-A  6s-ti-glia 


SE-Ni-A  Se-gna 

TER-BU-Ni-o  X  Tre-bi-gna 
co-LO-Ni-A       Cologne,  Fr. 
His-PA-Ni-A      Es-pagne    " 
BRi-TAN-Ni-A    Bretagne    " 


304.  That  elision  of  L  and  epenthesis  of  I  or  J  are  concerned  in  flamma,  fiamma,  is 
proved  by  the  Spanish  forms,  where  both  L  and  J  (written  H)  are  lieard,  as  in  llama 
(flame)=UAMA,  or  in  the  English  collier  for  coaler. 

Italian, 

piano 
pieno 
chiave 
piantaggine 

305.  By  taking  Portuguese  into  account,  we  find  a  newer  form  in  which  PL-,  &c.,  are 
lost,  and  the  J  converted  into  French  ch  (Eng.  sh,  or  dialectically  into  isfi,)  by  glottosis — 

10 


Latin, 

PLANUS         plain 

PLENUS  full 

CLAvus         key 
{-FLANTAGINIS  plantain 


Spanish. 
llano 

lleno  (&  cheno) 
Have 
llanten. 


70 


ANALYTIC  OHTIIOGBAniY. 


Lnti'tif 

ItnlttiH, 

Spanithf 

Portmjuenc, 

CLAMAKK  fo  cry 

cliiumurc 

llamar 

chamar 

I'l.UMitu'"  lead 

piombo 

plomo 

chumbo 

I'LORAKE  to  lament 

llorar 

chorat" 

PLAGA  a  hlmo 

piaga 

Uaga 

cbaga 

PLUVIA  niin 

piovdre 

Hover 

chover. 

300.  A  union  of  three  vowels,  as  ate,  or  da,  is  contrary  to  tbe  genius  of  English  and  its 
antecedents,  and  when,  by  the  elision  of  a  consonant,  three  vowels  are  thus  brought  to- 
gether, and  the  intermediate  one  is  I  or  E,  it  first  becomes  J,  and  then  perhaps  a  palatal, 
as  English  or  French  j.  It  is  not,  as  we  are  commonly  taught,  the  B  of  the  Latin  rablds 
that  becomes  zh  in  the  French  ratje,  and  dzh  in  the  English  rage,  but  the  I.  TU'ts  is  cotir 
finned  by  the  Rhaetian  form  rahjia,  in  which  i  indicates  corrupt  dzh.  The  supposable 
intermediate  steps  between  Latin  and  French  (the  first  and  fourth  column)  aro  given  1: 3re 
in  Latin  Letters,  but  ahbreviare  is  not  a  classic  word. 

ABREJAR 

DaUJE 

RAJE 

SAJB 

CAJE 

SEJE 

RUJE 

GUJE 

If  the  elided  B  of  rabies  had  been  D,  rar/e  &c.  would  have  been  examples  of  partial 
metallaxis  (§  312,  313,)  the  D  tending  to  draw  the  J  into  the  palatal  contact. 

307.  As  sa.Aa  made  French  sauge  (the  plant  sage)  with  a  sonant  *g'  due  to  the  sonant 
Iv  of  the  original;  and  se..ia  made  secJie  with  surd  *ch'  due  to  surdj)  of  the  original,  we 
may  account  for  sonant  zh  in  fusion,  and  the  surd  eh  in  mission. 

308.  Although  mission,  nation,  with  sh,  are  derived  from  the  French  miss-i-o°,  na-ti-o", 
(nasio")  with  8;  and  fumon,  with  zh,  from  fusio"  with  z,  there  is  no  transmutation  of  *,  /, 
z,  to  the  English  palatals,  the  French  consonants  being  lost,  whilst  their  influence  remained. 

309.  Those  go  upon  a  false  assumption  who  think  they  are  justified  in  using  c  as  an  al- 
phabetic character  for  sh  from  the  analogy  of  ocean.  It  is  the  e  which  is  the  real  sh  here; 
and  the  t  in  twtion  has  as  little  to  do  with  the  same  sound,  as  the  p  of  s^ia  in  seche,  or 
in  the  Old  French  pipion,  which,  as  an  English  word,  is  pronounced  j^i^eon,""  as  the  Italian 
storion-e  is  pronounced  sturgeon  in  English. 

*  See  Paradoxes  1  and  6,  §  41  a.  ,        ,. 


abbreviare 

ABRE..IAR 

DILUVIUM" 

DILU..IU 

RABIES 

RA..IES 

SALVIA 

SA..  ..lA 

CAVEA 

CA..EA 

SEPIA 

SE..IA 

RUBEUS 

RU..EUS 

Sp.  gubia 

GU..IA 

a..br6ge'' 

>  auridge 

s  deluge 

deluge 

rage 

>  rage 

> sauge 

X  sage 

cage 

<  cage 

seche 

cuttle-fish 

rouge 

ruddy 

gouge 

>  gouge. 

ANALYTIC  ORTIKXlRArnr. 


71 


310.  The  won!  *o(canlr'  (with  «)  is  ohhr  than  *ocenn'  (in  two  HyllftblcH.)  nnd  is  not  de- 
rived from  it;  and  when  both  arc  pronounced  with  nh,  this  sound  Ls  represented  hy  *«' 
in  'ocean'  and  by  *ce'  in  'oceanic,'  where  *e'  does  double  duty  as  a  consoiuvnt  and  a  vow(d. 
The  word  ia  more  correct  when  pronounced  o-«e-an-ic;  so  is  pro-nun-si-a-tion,  because 
making  ah  out  of  «/,  elides  the  voted  power  of  *t"  and  reduces  the  \vord  one  Hyll.iblo. 

311.  If,  hy  the  converHoii  of  i  into  English  y  or  zh,  o-be-di-ent  becomes  o-bo-dyent  (the 
writer's  mode  of  speaking,)  or  o-be-dzhent,  no  speaker  of  real  English  can  preserve  htth 
dzh  and  i;  yet  Walker  has  coined  a  jargon  with  such  forms  as  o  be-je-ent,  and  cris-tshe- 
an-e-te.  Similarly,  if  'omniscient'  has  an  «,  it  has  four  syllables,  if  «/j,  it  has  but  three. 
Compare  the  dissyllables  Russia,  Asia,  conscience,  and  the  trissyllables  militia,  malicious. 

METALLAXIS    (§  273)    OF   CONSONANTS. 

312.  Sh  hehuj  made  posterior  to  the  s  position,  and  anterior  to  that  of  imj,  it  may 
happen,  that  in  the  attempt  to  pronounce  the  combinations  N-ch  (ff-;^,)  '</<•,  f<y,  ty,  the  tongue, 
instead  of  taking  both  elements  in  rapid  succession,  may  fall  between  them  upon  sh.  In 
this  manner  English  eh  has  arisen  from  Anglish  ac  (Swed.  Dan.  sk)  and  Belgian  s-ch,  as 
in  ship,  shaft,  shape,  shovel,  shed,  fish,  &c.  Latin  Musca,  (a  fly)  Fr.  mouche;  maStlCaro 
(to  chew)  Fr.  macher. 

313.  English  u  heiny  yoo,  au  (when  not  the  son  of  uncorrupt  speakers,)  either  drops  the 
y,  or  falls  into  shoo,  &c.,  as  in  sugar,  sure,  treasure,  pleasure,  where  it  is  not  the  a  so  much 
as  the  y  of  M  (yoo)  that  has  the  power  of  ah.  It  is  the  a  which  may  be  said  to  draw  up  the 
guttural  through  ay  to  the  aJi  position.  When  aJi,  zh,  tah,  dzh,  occur  before  a  vowel  written 
with  'u,'  this  may  not  hi  read  yoo,  as  in  sure,  azure,  chuse,  jury.  The  forms  'ishyoo'  for 
issue  (ishoo,  in  legitimate,  as  compared  with  pedantic  English,)  and  'mezhyoor'  for 
measure  (mezhr,)  seem  to  have  been  manufactured  from  the  old  spellings,  under  the 
impression  that  as  in  issue  represent  «7i.  In  'ishyoo,'*  'u'  is  a  triplet,  composed  partly 
of  all,  and  entirely  oiy-oo.  If  the  'u'  of  unit  occurs  in  aiK,  suit,  these  words  must  become 
shoe,  altoot;  but  if  the  a  is  preserved  pure,  the  vowel  must  be  that  in  hoot.  There  is  no 
other  alternative.  Whatever  mistakes  foreigners  may  fall  into,  or  elocutionists  manu- 
facture, this  is  the  law — the  genius — the  philosophy  of  English  speech. 

ANALLAXIS  OF  CONSONANTS. 

314.  Aa  the  Qreeha  conld  not  pronounce  the  oriental  sh,  they  either  transmuted  it  into  a, 
or  (by  anallaxis)  used  their  ^  ka  for  it,  as  in  Artaxerxes,  in  (modern)  Persian  ardeahir-shah 
(great  king,  or  lion.)     French  'charniere'  (a  hinge,)  Belgian  echarnier,  with  a-x  from  sh. 

*This  ia  often  said  in  Englnii  i,  according  to  Mr.  Ellis'  MS.,  "to  avoid  the  pedantic  effect  of  is-yoo  on  the  one 
hand,  and  ish-oo  on  the  other,  which  is  thought  flat,  broad,  vulgar,  inelegant,  and  comparable  to  noo  (Franklin's 
pronunciation)  for  myoo.  ...  I  ;j;rant  you  that  either  ish-oo  or  is-oo  would  bo  in  accordance  with  the  genius  of 
our  pronunciation;  but  fashion  dislikes  soo,  wot,  for  aiw,  suit,  and  laughs  at  thoo,  shoot,  as  Irishisiua," 


•*>  *  1'.,'  ■ 


r*  • 


72 


ANALYTIC  ORTIKWRAI'IIY. 


I 


CHAPTER  xiir. 


ETYMOLOGIC  BEARINGS. 


Wo  iniifit  not  pormit  oiimolvcH  to  lio  giiidod  Rolely  )>y  the  ovo  norby  thogrnmnriarian  either;  butmuit,  on  tho contrary, 
coiidult  tlio  eiir. — Honnycantle,  CliiHHicnl  Muhcuid,  No.  -3,  p.  32. 

§  315.  Mr.  Ellis  has  cahnlated  (Plea,  2d  ed.,  §  30,)  that  not  more  than  ono  person  in 
1000  Clin  be  benefited  by  an  etymologic  orthograpliy,  and  it  has  been  asserted  that  all 
the  countries  of  which  English  is  the  language,  do  not  furnish  five  hundred  etymologists. 
There  are,  in  fact,  more  good  mathematicians  and  good  chemists  than  good  etymologists, 
and  whilst  few  chemists  would  be  at  a  loss  to  give  the  rationale  of  their  processes,  the 
authors  (Sullivan,  Graham,  Lynd,)  of  popular  school  etymologies,  cannot  explain  their  own 
examples,  nor  distinguish  between  mutation,  elision,  and  insertion. 

310.  The  chemist  worlcH  primarily  with  things,  and  secondarily,  with  symbols;  the  scho- 
lar does  the  reverse,  studying  symbols  rather  than  living  speech,  as  a  deaf  mute  would  be 
compelled  to  do.  Hence  Scheie  de  Vere'"  calls  the  French  word  for  water  "  eau  (o) "  a 
triphthong;  he  says  most  English  radical  words  have  been  reduced  to  monosyllables  "at 
least  in  pronunciation;"  and  that  "  the  changes  of  sounds  and  their  growth  go  on  conti- 
nually, and  thus  the  fipclliny  of  a  language  gives  us  the  only  true  account  of  \ta  first  form 
and  stihsequent  historic  changes.  This  is  the  principal  and  all-powerful  argument  against 
phonography."  A  perverse  inference  from  a  correct  premise.  "  For  nearly  fourteen  cen- 
turies of  our  Christian  era  but  few  persons  in  France  and  Germany  could  write,  and  how 
was  it  possible  to  judge  of  words  and  their  etymology  without  seeing  them?"  Dr.  Latham 
says — "  To  those  writers  who,  denying  the  affinity  between  the  Irish  and  Welsh,  can  iden- 
tify the  Erse  with  the  Hebrew,  I  apply  the  term  nyctalopia — the  power  of  seeing  best  in 
the  dark."  Yet  an  Irish  laborer  who  had  acquired  Welsh  in  Wales,  when  asked  some 
questions  about  his  own  language,  stated  of  his  own  accord  that  Welsh  was  "  a  good  deal 
like  it."  And  yet  how  different:  but  his  language  instinct  had  not  been  extirpated,  and 
he  could  grasp  the  relations  as  readily  as  an  American  savage  can  disentangle  an  etymo- 
logy in  his  vernacular. 

317.  The  Dictiotiary  of  Derivations ;  or,  an  Introduction  to  Etymology,  hy  Robert  Sul- 
livan, LL.  D.,  T.  C.  D.,  meets  with  the  approbation  of  "  the  distinguished  Philologist  and 
Anglo-Saxon  scholar,"  Dr.  Bosworth,  and  causes  the  Dublin  University  Magazine  to  "con- 
fess we  have  been  startled  at  the  extent  of  the  ignorance  of  many  previous  writers  on  the 
subject."  Dr.  Sullivan,  with  many  others,  gives  divinity  (an  older  word)  as  from  divingf 
*  Outlinoa  of  Comparative  Philology.  New  York,  1863.    See  also  §  6  a. 


I 


ANALYTIC  ORTIIOOHAPnY. 


78 


nnd  ho  represents  h  and  i-  as  becoming  "</  soft"  in  pnssing  from  tlic  Latin  UAniES,  AimuK- 
ViARE,  LUJinus,  to  the  French  rage,  abr<''ger,  longo,* — a  tranumiitation  which  is  ahnoxt  im- 
possible.    iSo  Graff  thinks  tliat  V  in  cavka  became  y  in  ca<jc.-\ 

318.  SulUcnn,  Gro/iain,  and  Lyinl,  represent  the  dental  consonant  /  as  firqiu  ntly 
passing  into  the  labial  vowel  u,  a  phenoujonon  of  which  we  do  not  recollect  an  example. 
They  cite  for  it  Latin  solidaue,  French  mmdrc  (to  soder,)  and  Latin  altls  (high)  com- 
pared with  the  French  vowel  haut.  These  are  examples  of  the  loss  of  /,  as  in  <•<«//,  ful/i-y 
(perhaps  absorbed  by  d  and  (,)  and  of  the  vowel  change  of  O  to  U,  (as  in  tfotd,  if'Ktld,) 
and  from  A  to  O,  (written  (lu  in  French. )J  But  such  authors  mistake  characters  for 
elements,  spelling  for  etymology,  and  the  nourishes  of  the  writing  master  for  the  modifi- 
cations of  speech. 

319.  According/  to  SuUican,  h  is  prefixed  in  passing  from  the  Latin  olel'"  (oil)  to 
the  French  huile,  which  has  as  little  aspiration  as  the  English  word  oil  G  is  said  to  be 
inserted  in  'Bretagne*  from  Britannia  (although  there  is  wo  addition  whatever,)  and  in 
'grange'  from  granum,  which  could  not  have  produced  it,  although  GRANarJum  might. 
Nor  is  there  any  change  from  v  to  </  in  DILUvJum  dehuje,  or  of  6  to  </  in  RunEUS  wmje. 
In  fact,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  saLvare  sauver  should  be  considered  a  transmutation  of 
I  to  u,  and  ruBeus  roUgc  not  be  regarded  as  the  same  law  applied  to  h  and  u — although 
both  views  would  be  equally  incorrect. 

320.  The  magazine  quoted,  praises  Dr.  S.  for  the  extent  to  which  he  has  referred 
English  words  to  Latin  originals,  and  Dr.  Bosworth,  in  the  kindness  of  his  heart,  says, — 
"I  wish  you  would  turn  your  attention  to  the  Anglo-Saxon,  German,  or  Teutonic  part  of 
our  language.  You  have  well  proved  our  obligations  to  the  Latin  and  Greek."  Among 
these,  haughrty  is  referred  to  al-tus,  although  it  is  akin  to  high,  Belgian  lutoy  (hogh)  with 
a  guttural  which  ALTus  cannot  account  for.  Hawk  is  referred  to  Latin  ialco,  instead  of 
Anglish  hafoc,  Welsh  hehog,  English  hobby.  Finally,  he  pronounces  Richardson's  '"far  the 
best,  and,  indeed,  the  only  complete  Etymological  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language 
that  has  yet  appeared." 

321.  Fine  (a  mulct)  is  referred  to  Finis,  end,  ?imit;  but  (with  the  law  Latin  finis)  it 
seems  to  be  a  di£ferent  word,  the  Gr.  noivjj  (a  fine,)  Latin  Poena,  pain,  punishment; 
punio,  I  punish.     Compare  Pater  and  Father. 

*  But  compare  lendes  (loins)  of  Chaucer,  German  hnde,  Lat.  OLUNia, — reoio  vel  pars  lumbea,  the  lumbar 
(loin)  region  or  part. 

f  Althochdeutscher  Spraohschatz,  vol.  1,  p.  G14. 

\  The  obvious  explanation  of  these  examples  may  be  found  in  Biihtlingk, — Uber  die  Sprachc  dcr  Jakutcn. 
St.  Petersburgh,  1851;  p.  4,  note  9.  He  cites  galdere,  aldace,  &c.,  of  the  Florentine  dialect,  for  ijnndcrc  and 
audace,  as  a  change  from  u  to  /;  but  it  is  rather  the  loss  of  u  and  the  eduction  (§  208)  of  /  from  the  cognate  '/. 


''M\ 


m 


74 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


322.  Bead  is  akin  to  bud,  button,  Hindustanee  pot  a  bead.  "Supposed  from  beten, 
bidJan,  to  pray,  from  tbe  use  of  bends  in  Catholic  countries."  Webster,  Richardson, 
Tooke.  Yet,  beads  must  have  been  invented,  named,  and  used  for  ornament  in  all  coun- 
tries, aniccet'ent  to  such  a  collateral  purpose. 

323.  NotlophUns.  Some  years  ago  the  authorities  of  the  State  of  New  York  permitted 
a  Vrge  sum  of  money  to  be  paid  for  the  publication  of  a  worthless  quarto  volume,  devoted 
to  the  Entomology  of  that  region.  The  author  was  for  thirty  years  a  professor  of  natural 
history  in  a  college  in  Massachusetts,  and  therefore  competent,  one  should  suppose,  to 
work  out  the  technical  otymologies  of  the  science  which  he  professed — for  these  are 
all  spelt  according  to  rule.  Nor  was  tatre  any  necessity  to  deal  with  etymology, 
as  the  book  was  about  insects,  without  regard  to  the  meaning  of  their  names.  This 
official  work,  published  "By  Authority,"  is  alluded  to  here,  to  show  Jioio  little  use  can  be 
made  of  an  etymologic  ortliography,  even  by  the  so-called  "educated"  classes  about  some 
of  our  colleges.  Here  Notioplnlvs  is  rendered  "notion  beetle,"  from  the  Latin  notio  a 
notion,  instead  of  loet-lover  from  vdzco;  wet,  f 'V.oc  lover.  Anchomcnca  (from  '^/'Z^o,  to  squeeze 
the  throat,  because  the  insect  has  a  narrow  neck,)  is  made  "ditch  beetle,"  as  if  from  5poc, 
a  cleft.  Aphodlus  (named  from  inhabiting  filth,)  is  made  "footless  beetle,"  as  if  from  a 
(not,)  '"ovc  (foot,)  the  insect  being  a  good  walker  and  flier.  Oucujus,  (from  the  South 
American  nan.:  cucujo,)  is  made  "  mixed  beetle,"  as  if  from  xuxdw.  Coelioxya  (meaning 
pointed  abdomen,)  is  made  "ceiling  wasp,"  &c.     The  'Entomology'  is  equally  worthless. 

324.  Enfomostraca,  the  name  of  certain  minute  Crustacea,  some  of  which  have  a  bivalve 
shell,  is  derived  from  ivzo/ia,  insects,  uaz^naxov,  a  shell,  but  in  Macmurtrie's  Dictionary  of  the 
terms  used  in  natural  history,  they  are  said  to  be  thus  called,  because  the  shell  is  divided 
into  numerous  segments;  and  the  Greek  fid/x/xa  (a  mother)  is  given  as  the  etymology  of 
mammalogy,  which  science  would  be  thus  made  to  treat  of  animals  with  mothers. 

325.  Arquebus.  The  Latin  armS,  first  meant  tools  of  husbandry,  next  those  of  war.  In 
German  -armschiltze'  (from  the  roots  of  ann  and  s/iooi)  is  a  crossbowman ;  and  'armbrust' 
is  a  crossbow,  as  if  connected  with  arm^  and  breast,  from  a  mode  of  holding  the  weapon, 
the  stock  of  which  was  tubular,  with  a  transverse  groove  to  allow  the  string  to  drive  the 
arrow  or  ball. 

French  *arquebuse;'  Norman  'arbalest;'  Ital.  arcobugio  and  archibuso  (as  if  from 
*arco'  a  bow,  and  *  bugio'  a  perforation,  *buso'  pierced;)  English  arquebus,  arblast,  aw- 
blast,  harquebut,  haquebut,  hackbut,  hagbut,  hagbusb,  haque,  hack,  hake,  and  demihake. 
Compare  German  'doppelhaken,'  as  \i  double  hook,  doubit  the  size  of  the  hakenbiichse. 

Belgian  'haakbus'  (as  if /too/»;  tube,  as  'vuurroer'  is  a  gun  or  fire  tube.)  The  Belgian 
*  bus,'  (German  '  biichse,'  a  box,  pipe,  gun-barrel,  and  gun ;  Gr.  7rof/f,  Eng.  box,)  occurs  in 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


75 


fov'ling-ptece,  and  blunder-Jiw,  a  blundering  perversion  of  *  donderbus,'  as  \i  thunder  tube — 
all  of  them  being  used  heteroiiymically,  i.  e.,  by  transfer  of  idea  as  in  sparrow-grass  for 
the  older  sparagus. 

Originally  applied  to  the  cross-bow,  these  names  were  extended  to  portable  fire-arms 
when  these  came  into  use,  the  general  appearance  being  the  same.  In  some  cross-bows, 
as  in  the  first  muskets,  the  stock  was  straight,  and  held  on  the  breast  in  shooting.  Those 
with  a  crooked  stock  were  associated  with  hooh  by  the  Germans,  who  invented  this  form. 

"  Arquehuse  Fr.  from  arquer  to  make  crooked,  and  the  Teutonic  lua  a  pipe,  a  gun,  &c. 
Hence  the  word  means  a  hook  gun." — Webster. 

"  Arquebuse,  Sp.  arcubuz,  composed  of  arco,  an  arc  or  bow;  and  bmio,  which  signifies 
Jiolc  in  Italian.  (Menage.)  But  the  etymology  of  busio  is  unsettled." — RlcJiarthon.  For 
Hackbut,  Richardson  quotes  Lodge  thus — "  from  Jiaque,  a  term  of  unknown  derivation,  and 
buter,  Fr.  to  aim  at."  ; 

The  ancients  had  various  engines  for  casting  missiles,  named  balistae,  (from  ,WJm,  I 
throw,)  some  of  which  were  on  the  principle  of  the  cross-bow.  We  find  also  the  ancient 
term  arcubalista  (or  with  II,)  which,  with  the  aid  of  otosis,  elision,  and  heteronymy, 
arising  out  of  the  varying  use  and  changing  shape  of  the  weapon,  will  account  for  all  the 
forms  cited.  Poitevin  assigns  the  Fr.  arbalete  to  the  Greek  intensive  a/n,  and  lUUw. 
Graff  assigns  'armbrust'  to  arcubalista,  but  also  suggests  arrow  for  arm-. 

The  elision  of  cu  and  eduction  of  m  from  b  of  the  original,  made  the  heteronymic  arm 

of '  armbrust'  (a  word  which  is  in  Trench,)  and  the  mutation  of  Z  to  r  accompanied  balist, 

Vlist  in  suggesting  brust,  or  its  dialectic  form  in  the  Nordish  'armbrysti.'    By  theae  means 

the  bow  became  an  arm,  and  a  'thrower'  a  breast;  whilst  a  pistol-shaped,  gun-shaped,  or 

crooked  handle,  required  that  an  'arc'  in  one  language  should  be  considered  a  hooh  in 

another. 

ARC  U-B  A  L  I  S  T  A 

....     b  a   1    e  s   t    .. 

..  ..   nb  .. 

..  ..   mb  0 

q  ue    b  .. 


r 
r 
r 
r 
r 


ha 
ha 


q  ue 
c    .. 


b 
b 
b 
b 
P 


U  8  t 
..  8  t 
U  ..  t 
US.. 

a  ..  t 
u  sh.. 

US.. 

ie  0  .. 


326.  Pistol,  Bohemian  root  3A,  whence  the  infinitive  ba-ti,  to  speakj  pe^'ti,  to  sing; 
beseda,  discourse  (fatka,  a  parasite;)  wyr,  wejr,  an  owl;  weyt,  to  howl;  weysk,  a  shout; 


76 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


m: 


Aifei 


wyr^ek,  pronunciation;  baj,  a  ba-bbler,  fi-bber;  baje  (Pol.  bajka,)  a  fa-ble;  pe''se''n,  a  song; 
basen",  a  poem;  wati,  we'ni,  to  blow;  fujak  (and  witr,)  wind;  wicher,  a  whirlwind;  wich, 
a  wisp,  (Gor.  wisch;)  we'trnik,  a  sail;  wo'jir,  a  ftxn;  pero  (Pol.  pioro,)  a  feather,  a  fin; 
perut',  a  wing;  pych,  to  breathe;  fauneti,  to  wheeze;  pasari,  noise;  pisk,  a  whifF,  a  quill; 
pisak,  a  writer;  pisatel,  an  author;  pis'^t'ala,  a  pipe,  (Lat.  fistula;)  pis^'tadlo,  a.  phstol. 
Akin  are  Polish  bez,  elder-tree;  piszczel,  a  pipe. 

327.  Dogyerelf  a  deteriorative  formed  like  mongrel, — from  the  Germanic  dicJUer,  &c.,  a 
poet,  and  meaning  bad  poetry. 

328.  Laudanum,  an  otosis  of  nodnum,  and  a  cognate  of  anodyne.  Gr.  adj.  vwdtS^voi;, 
neuter  NiiJoNON,  relieving  pain,  anodyne.  Webster  and  Sullivan  refer  it  to  LAVDO 
(I  praise,)  first  assuming  the  spelling  to  be  etymologic. 

329.  G-lay-more,  Gaelic  and  Irish  raor  (great,)  Gael,  claidhamh,  Ir.  claidhcamh,  Welsh 
cledd-yf  (a  sword,)  c-led-r  (a  f-lat  body,)  11-ed  (breadth,)  Lat.  latus,  Gr.  -/'.aruc  (wide;) 
Ir.  leith-ead  (breadth,)  leithe  (the  shoulder  blade,)  Eng,  p-late,  b-lade,  p-lot,  p-lat,  f-lat, 
s-lat,  s-late,  c-loth,  lath,  leather,  ladle,  b-road,  sp-read,  (and  led  with  silent  d  in)  buckler. 
An  etymologic  orthography  like  bwgrllyedr  and  dhjedhcamhmor,  exhibits  their  mutual 
relation  perfectly,  to  those  who  object  to  the  phonetic  spellings  'buckler'  and  'claymore.' 

329a.  Strumpet,  Irish  striobuid;  Gr.  /'£/V<o  to  st-roll,  roiim,  ramble;  /^s/'/^ac,  she  who 
strolls,  a  strumpet.     For  Maraud  &  Foray,  see  §  265. 

330.  Heyday,  perhaps  Old  Fr.  haite  (health,)  haitie  (healthy,  joyous,  gay,)  Ger.  heiter 
(serene,  happy.) 

331.  Grampus,  yfo/iifdz,  s-CROFA,  a  sow;  SCRIBO,  I  scratch,  write,  {jpd(pw,  yl'j<fw\)  scrupus, 
a  sharp  stone;  clupea,  a  herring, /rowi  the  sharp  ventral  scales.  The  motiouy  of  the  small 
cetaceans  are  suggestive  of  the  wallowing  of  swine,  and  the  shape  of  the  snout  and  back 
are  somewhat  porcine;  hence  3il<fa^  a  pig,  oeXifl^  a  dolphin;  porpus,  from  pork-fish,  &c. 

332.  Davit,  a  cognate  of  gaff,  from  Sp.  gavieta,  by  otosis. 

333.  Well,  Latin  bene, — compare  William  and  Bill;  Dan.  teLt;  Eng.  teNt.  Bad,  Lat. 
mains.     Similarly,  bonus,  melior,  and  bellus,  are  cognates. 

334.  Transom,  in  shipbuilding,  a  timber  bearing  some  resemblance  to  a  bench;  tran- 
strum,  a  bench  for  rowers,  a  cross  beam;  Opdu}  I  sit,  (suDstantive  dimin.  Opdvtazpov,  of) 
dpSuo;,  a  bench  for  rowers  (the  uppermost  of  three,)  a  projecting  head  of  a  beam. 

335.  Fern,  msptv,  zTspe;,  akin  to  --cepw,  a  plume,  a  wing,  from  ^rsTdw,  mda),  to  spread. 

336.  Proper  names  afford  much  etymological  material.  Osrtc,  rich  in  oxen.  Booke, 
probably  Hugo,  exalted,  high.  Bogg,  Hague,  Hedge,  Hedger.  Lightner,  Ger.  leiten,  to 
lead.    Fo)-€st,  probably  Ger.  Fiirst,  a  prince,  nobleman.    Forester,  probably  Ger.  Vorsteher, 


ANALYTIC  OHTllOGRAPHY. 


77 


a  warden,  a  Foreman,  which  (as  a  proper  name)  may  be  Fuhrman,  a  wagon(3r.    Ildrtman, 
a  forester. 

337.  North,  coarse,  unfriendly.  Grate,  Belg.  groot,  great.  Hartley,  little  heart.  Land- 
seer,  probably  Fr.  lancier,  a  lancer.  Kletiewater,  (not  clean,  but)  little  water,  i.  e..  Brook. 
Peck,  Beck,  Ger.  Bach,  Isl.  Becker,  a  brook.     Chilman,  kill,  a  stream. 

338.  Chopping,  probably  Dan.  kjopen.  Gutlove,  Ger.  Gottlieb,  God-love.  Flashman,  a 
butcher,  Ger.  fleisch.  Hedyear,  Ger.  Riidiger, «/  being  English  y  in  some  dialects.  Vinegar 
(in  Pennsylvania,)  probably  Ger.  Wienker. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


THE  VOWELS. 

A  tranBcrlption  vill  become  more  and  more  perfect  the  more  nearly  it  represents  the  peculiarities  of  pronunciation,  a 
result  which  must  never  be  lost  sight  of,  even  though  it  be  impossible  to  attain  it. — Ekhhol]',  I'arallule  des  Langues, 
Paris,  1836,  p.  486. 

Such  diversities  of  opinion  convey  no  truth;  such  a  multiplicity  of  statements  of  what  has  been  said,  in  no  dep;ree 
teaches  us  what  is;  such  accumulations  of  indistinct  notions,  however  vast  and  varied,  do  not  make  up  one  distinct  idea. 
Whewell,  Ilistory  of  the  Inductive  Sciences,  1837,  vol.  1,  p.  240. 

339.  If  it  ia  difficult  to  appreciate  vowel  variations,  it  is  still  more  difficult  to  convey  an 
idea  of  them  in  writing;  and  even  with  the  aid  of  speech,  the  teacher  may  be  satisfied 
with  an  attempt  in  the  pupil  which  is  far  from  being  exact.  Indeed,  unless  the  teacher 
has  an  accurate  ear  and  cautious  habits,  he  is  not  necessarily  the  best  qualified  to  give 
instruction  in  the  pronunciation  of  his  own  vernacular. 

340.  Consonants  may  he  recalled  in  all  their  purity  by  associating  them  with  the  organs 
which  produce  them;  but  time  wears  away  the  impression  of  vowels,  and  prevents  such 
as  are  newly  heard  from  being  referred  to  others  heard  in  former  years,  so  that  opinions 
in  regard  to  them  must  be  adopted  with  caution. 

341.  Vowels  cannot  he  described  intelligibly  until  there  is  a  'Cale  or  apparatus  by  which 
the  exact  amount  of  throat  or  lip  aperture  may  be  indicated,  and  until  then,  key  words 
must  be  used,  from  which  approximations  may  be  deduced,  Descriptions  of  vowels  are 
commonly  v^ry  loose.  For  example,  Antrim,  (Pantography,  Philada.,  1843,  p.  38,) 
without  citing  a  key  word,  describes  one  as  "a  full  sound,  seeming  to  turn  back,  or  cant 
off  from  the  fulness  of  o — "  which  to  him  was  a  clear  account  of  the  sound  he  assigns  to 
the  final  oiwho,  and  the  initial  of  with,  but  equolly  applicable  to  awe.  There  are  twelve 
errors  in  his  account  of  the  German  alphabet. 

11 


tT{l|'      i 


78 


ANALTTIC  OUTIIOGRAPIIY. 


I 


342.  Vowels  are  not  mumcal  sounds,  these  being  made  by  the  varying  tension  of  the 
vocal  ligaments,  the  tension  for  the  vowels  seeming  to  vary,  but  little,  except  in  song. 
But  as  the  vowels  depend  upon  the  varying  capacity  of  tlie  mouth  and  pharynx,  and  as 
this  would  modify  musical  tones,  there  is  an  affinity  between  the  two.  ' 

343.  Vowels  are  related  to  the  musical  scale  of  the  cavity  of  the  mouth,  as  determined 
by  the  jewsharp,  or  in  whistling,  which,  in  the  same  person,  have  a  different  compass 
from  the  song  notes  of  the  glottis;  and  as  the  whistling  compass  comprehends  about  two 
octaves,  the  speaking  compass  may  be  assumed  as  the  same.  This  is  the  proper  basis  for 
a  comparison  of  vowel  and  musical  pitch. 

344.  In  the  voivel  mechanism,  although  most  of  the  vowels  may  be  produced  without 
exhibiting  the  more  obvious  changes  in  the  organs  accompanying  them,  yet  their 
production  in  the  natural  mode  is  accompanied  by  certain  conformations  which  are  useful 
as  collateral  indicators.  These  affect  the  lips,  jaw,  tongue,  and  larynx,  the  two  latter 
receding  and  advancing  a  little  to  enlarge  or  diminish  the  vocal  tube  or  cavity,  and  of 
this  the  tongue  is  the  index.  Thus,  the  advance  of  the  tongue  to  the  teeth  in  I,  E, 
shows  a  reduced  vocal  cavity,  whilst  its  withdrawal  in  A,  0,  indicates  its  enlargement. 
By  this  criterion,  of  the  vowels  t(p,  at,  the  former  is  placed  nearer  to  A,  although  at  is  by 
many  considered  as  a  kind  of  A. 

345.  From  the  opening  of  the  lips  by  the  retraction  of  the  latersil  angles  required  for  I, 
to  their  closure  for  U,  there  is  a  gradual  series  of  changes,  the  principal  steps  of  which 
correspond  with  I,  E,  A,  0,  U.  Of  these,  I  is,  in  musical  phrase,  the  highest,  the  vocal 
cavity  being  diminished  by  closure,  and  its  length  curtailed  by  contracting  the  angles  of 
the  lips. 

340.  The  jaws  open  gradually  as  the  lip  opening  is  narrowed  from  I  through  E  to  A  (or 
if  this  is  not  sufficiently  open,  to  axoe,)  when  they  close  towards  0  and  U.  But  Tschnir- 
schnitz  makes  the  jaw  opening  continue  from  I  to  U;  and  we  can  unite  the  jaw  position 
of  awe  to  the  lip  position  of  O  or  U,  giving  rise  to  sounds  which  may  occur  among  such  as 
are  described  in  books  as  "o  approaching  w,"  or  "u  approaching  o." 

347.  There  is  this  difficulty  in  determining  the  vowel  by  the  jaw  opening,  that  the  same 
vowel  is  not  restricted  to  a  particular  opening.  Thus  add  requires  a  smaller  opening  than 
A,  yet  A  can  be  made  with  the  opening  of  add,  which  may  be  made  with  the  external 
aperture  of  I;  but  in  both  cases  the  additional  space  required  is  secured  in  the  pharynx, 
as  proved  by  the  letraction  of  the  tongue.  If,  therefore,  we  pass  up  the  vowel  scale  from 
A  to  I,  or  down  from  A  to  U,  without  opening  sufficiently  for  A  at  the  'joramencement, 
we  shall  find  the  mouth  shut  at  the  extremes  of  the  scale. 

348.  Lt  measuring  tJiejaw  aperture  (by  means  of  a  graduated  wedge  inserted  between 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


71) 


the  teeth,)  it  has  been  found  tliat  ebb  requires  about  ^  inch;  add  about  ^g',  and  A,  aw, 
from  tV  to  -rV. 

349,  This  has  a  practical  hearing  on  the  proper  determination  of  the  state  and  position 
of  a  vowel,  for  as  any  one  may  vary  a  little  in  aperture  without  being  considered  distinct, 
we  must  determine  or  assume  a  certain  phase  as  normal,  and  then  add  a  mai'k  for  the 
closer  and  more  open  phases.  The  open  phase  might  be  represented  by  the  minute  circle 
used  by  Lepsius  for  open  consonants,  and  the  close  phase  by  a  minute  plii»  mark.  For 
example  o-bey  and  odd  have  smaller  apertures  (are  higher  notes)  Ihan  owe  and  aice,  and 
they  should  have  some  distinguishing  mark,  but  shall  we  consider  odd  the  standard  and 
give  awe  the  opening  mark,  or  do  the  reverse,  and  mark  odd  as  a  close  awe?  Shall  worth 
be  considered  a  closer  worm,  wrn,  or  as  the  normal  form? 


STOPT  VOWELS. 

350.  The  name  of  stopt  voicels  has  been  given  to  certain  short  English  sounds,  a  term 
likely  to  mislead  if  it  is  taken  to  mean  a  particular  kind  of  vowels,  rather  than  an  eflect 
to  which  any  vowel  may  be  subjected,  whether  connected  with  other  elements,  or  detached. 
Thus  the  short  vowels  of  it,  add,  odd,  obey,  may  be  detached  and  lengthened,  without  fall- 
ing into  ec\,  arm,  awe,  owe;  eight  is  nearly  as  much  stopt  as  et,  and  there  is  no  more  dif- 
ference in  the  vowel  effect  between  it  and  eat,  lid  and  lead,  than  between  load  and  laud. 

351.  In  same  languages  there  is  a  staccato  or  stopt  effect,  as  in  Chinese,  where  Medhurst 
(Diet.  p.  xxxviii.)  writes  a  syllable  kah, — "  the  presence  of  the  h  however  does  not  inti- 
mate that  the  latter  part  of  the  word  is  aspirated,  but  only  that  it  is  contracted  and  sud- 
denly stopped,  before  the  full  sound  jf  the  word  is  completed."*  '    '    ■ 

351a.  These  stopt  vowels  occur  in  the  West  African  Gr6b6  ('  the  active  race,'  gre  a  jumper, 
climber,  a  monkey;  bo  kind,  race,)  as  in  so.plo'  the  upper  arm,  (so,  arm;)  cuna'  knee, 
fom;  cvacfiri'  palm  of  the  hand  (cva  hand,  curi'  belly;  bo  leg,  b6"curl  sole  of  the  foot; 
cva"ca  back  of  the  hand;  bo"pl"6  foot,  a  trissyllable,  §  168.  See  the  28th,  29th,  and 
30th  words  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  Cherokee,  §  624 ;  but  the  proper  mark  for  the  stopt 
vowels  is  one  which  is  difficult  to  print  with  ordinary  type — a  Greek  aspirate  (')  inverted 
(,)  and  raised  to  the  top  of  the  line.  The  notation  here  is  chat  of  this  essay,  with  v  as 
English  w. 

QUANTITY. 

352.  Tiie  length  of  vowels,  and  in  some  cases  of  consonants,  is  a  most  important  point  of 
notation,  without  which  books  cannot  be  read  as  a  native  would  read  them,  unless  the 
reader  has  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  words  independently. 

*  Perhaps  tbia  effect  should  be  indicated  by  whatever  mark  is  used  for  tho  Chinese  final  p,  t,  cay,   (§   171,) 
when  the  breath  is  not  allowed  to  pass  after  the  consonant,  as  in  allowing  the  lips  to  reinein  closed  at  the  end  of  top. 


80 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


^n 


353.  Length  of  st/lhtble  derived  from  consonants  requires  no  special  notation,  to  show, 
for  example,  that  string  is  longer  than  7'ing,  and  ^tn'p,s  longer  than  rip,  trip,  trips,  strip. 

354.  77ie  length  is  relative  in  vowels,*  the  longs  and  shorts  becoming  shorter  in  rapid 
discourse^  and  longer  when  it  is  retarded.  But  for  the  sake  of  illustration,  we  will  assume 
that  vowels  have  on  absolute  length.  Probably  the  limit  of  shortness  is  about  -jV  o^  '^ 
second  of  lime,  t  liat  is,  the  syllable  ta  cannot  be  repeated  more  than  thrice  in  i  of  a  second. 

355.  T/ic  length  of  a  short  vowel,  as  in  it,  at,  et,  ot,  ut  is  i  (|)  oi  a  «econd,  but  the  sylla- 
bles ?'x,  as.  "n,  f.8s,  ox,  are  half  a  second  long  on  account  of  the  continuous  consonant. 

'^56.  Lony  zDioels,  like  ah,  oh,  oive,  av;e,  oo-ze  are  from  4  to  |  (4)  of  a  second,  the  latter 
b(!  vg  00  of  Malzell's  metronome,  with  whicii,  and  with  a  watch  beating  quarter  seconds, 
the,v»  results  have  been  obtained. 

357.  Medial  vowels  are  I  to  4  of  a  second  lone- ,  The  vowel  of  awn  is  long,  of  on  me- 
dial, and  of  honed  honor  short.  There  has  been  much  error  and  confusion  in  English  pho- 
notypy  from  neglecting  medial  vowels,  especially  between  aice  and  odd.  These  have  been 
discriminated  rathe;-  by  length  than  quality,  the  close  lengthened  form  of  odd  being  con- 
sidered the  open  tiice,  and  the  latter,  when  abbreviated,  marked  as  the  close  odd.  Some 
words  have  been  written  both  with  aive  or  odd,  as  George  (George  Phon.  J.  June  1847,  p. 
180;  George  id.  p.  270;  war,  id.  184G,  p.  129;  war,  p.  287;)  or,  for,  short,  alter,  horse. 

358.  The  following  have  her.i  spelt  with  awe: — attthor,  ftitthority,  exh«Mst,  false,  always, 

although,  thought,  quarter,  Baltic;  and  the  following  with  odd; — on  (the  key  word  with 

some)  swan,  morn,  war'.>,  cross,  across,  loss,  long  (cf.  Gei'.  lang,)  was,  oftea,  orthography, 

coffin,  order,  God  (cf,  j^ot,)  John,  wander  (cf.  wonder,)  hog  (cf.  hug,  big.)f    Compare  the 

quantity  of 

or         ore  hog         hawk 

swan   swoon  alter  older 

on       own  short  hurt  fort 

horse  luiarse  cross  crease  crusty 

long    lung  morn  mourn  burn. 


*  Ellis,  Essentials  of  Phonetics,  London,  1848,  §  9. 

•j-  "  There  are  great  varieties  of  opinion  and  practice  respecting  the  vowel  in  the  words  cited,  both  in  England 
and  Ame  ica,  There  may  be  a  real  difference  between  awed  and  long  odd,  the  latter  may  be  closer.  .  .  .  Some  of 
the  differences  you  name  arose  from  Mr.  Pitman  (speaking  by  dictionary)  preferring  a  close  sound  and  a  stopt 
vowel  in  cross,  loss,  gone,  often,  oflSce,  where  a  long  or  medial  vowel  is  often  or  generally  beard  in  London.  In 
long  ?re  never  lengthen  o.  The  word  god  has  the  vowel  unhistoriealiy  lengthened  by  many,"  but  not  opened  into 
gawd,  "iicfoie  r  there  is  a  dispute  as  to  whether  a  long  or  short  vowel  should  be  placed.  Isaac  Pitman,  who 
cannot  irill  i\n  r,  prefers  the  ancient  short  vowel,  which  to  my  mind  can  only  be  properly  used  before  trilled  >•.... 
I  c«.nii,)t  help  thinking  that  in  your  cxpcriiuents  on  the  length  ot  vowels,  you  <  ,:i.  by  the  process  of  measuring 
the  f'  10,  have  been  led  to  take  the  consonants  into  account." — A.  .1.  Elli*,  MS. 


ANALYTIC  OKTIIOGRAPIIY. 


81 


NOTATION   OF  QUANTITY. 

359.  The  Romania  considered  the  vowels  as  naturally  short.  They  are  naturally  long,  the 
consonants  being  naturally  short.  Long  vowels  were  the  first  discriminated  and  supplied 
with  characters,  and  in  alphabets  which  do  not  discriminate  between  the  two,  it  is  safe  to 
infer  that  the  character  was  made  for  the  long  sound.*  Theoretically,  therefore,  there 
should  be  no  necessity  to  mark  the  long  vowels  or  the  short  consonants. 

3G0.  Tfie  marls  of  qutiniity  should  be  placed  above  or  after  the  characters,  the  former 
being  preferable.  In  the  latter  case  the  mark  of  accent  should  surmount  that  of  quantity. 
The  number  of  diacritics  would  not  disfigure  the  page,  provided  each  were  significant.  It 
is  only  when  they  are  meaningless  that  marks  offend  the  eye,  as  in  placing  five  dots  over 
rijiditi,  and  yet  these  dots  would  not  ofiend  in  a  line  of  staccatoed  music.  Bcihtlingk  has 
many  Jakutish  words  in  a  modified  Russian  orthography,  as  kypyojax  (a  deserter,)  where 
*  p'  is  r,  and  'x'  y^.  Sometimes  these  dots  are  surmounted  by  marks  of  length.  Castren  has 
Samojedic  spellings  like  kiijii  (birch)  iijii  (foot;)  and  there  is  a  lake  Abijijis  in  the  State 
of  Maine,  and  Ujiji  in  Africa.  Compare  Fiji,  o/^oc  (whey,)  and  Turkish  qyjyq  (oblique,) 
a  form  which  shows  that  strangeness  of  appearance  is  as  much  due  to  new  combinations 
of  familiar  letters,  as  to  new  characters. 

361.  If  the  longs  and  sJiorts  were  marked  {'")  the  medials  might  be  left  unmarked,  in- 
cluding such  about  which  the  writer  hesitates — or,  these  might  be  marked  with  a  superior 
dot  (a')  immediately  after  the  letter.  In  Hebrew,  three  degrees  of  quantity  are  recog- 
nised, long,  short,  and  very  short;  and  in  Sanscrit  a  figure  3  is  used  to  denote  a  very  long 
vowel.  Let  us  use  figures  to  denote  length  in  approximate  or  nominal  eighths  of  a  second, 
as  in  f  a'^n  a^t  i'^c,  f  a^n,  a^r  m  (including  the  quantity  of  r,)  C!  is  a  full  second,  or  a  beat  of 
the  metronome  at  GO. 

362.  In  the  following  CfieroJcee  road  c  as  ^  flat  (§  l&l,)  e  strictly  as  in  thei/,  weight 
(avoiding  ebb,)  a  in  art;  x  as  in  it;  o  strictly  as  a  true  short  0  in  note,  obey;  and  V  as 
English  w.     Then  we  have — 

ce'^hi'^'  (cehi')  far,  ce'hi,^'  (ce^hi')  very  far, 

na'cvo'^'  (nacvo)  tiear,  na^cvo'  (nacvo)  very  near. 

303.  The  CheroTcee  word  for  wind  (used  figuratively  for  smoke)  has  the  three  vowels  of 
foot,  war,  ebb,  (u,  n,  e,)  that  oiwar  being  the  open  vowel  o£awe,  with  a  medial  quantity, 
the  word  is  u^nn^li,  and  it  occurs  disguised  in  rhe  following  word,  where  medial  vowels 

*  "  In  most  languages  the  short  vowels  are  not  so  accurately  differenced  as  the  long  ones;  this  is  the  reason  why 
tbo  former  were  not  indicated  at  all  in  the  most  ancient  languages." — Lepnus,  Alphabet,  p.  51. 


82 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


are  unmarked,  u  in  vj),  pure  and  nasal,  i  in  feet;  the  acute  accentual  marks  a  short  ac- 
cented votoel,  and  the  grave  would  be  used  for  a  long  one. 

tIcv«''tB"nnln'testi' — 
used  by  an  old  chief  at  a  council,  and  incorrectly  rendered  by  the  interpreter — "  the  wind 
blowing  from  my  direction  will  indicate  where  I  am" — because  the  ordinary  word  for 
fimoJce  was  replaced  by  that  for  wind.  On  the  prairies  a  column  of  smoke  is  a  prominent 
object  which  may  be  seen  at  a  great  distance.  The  speaker  wished  to  convey  the  idea 
that^— "the  distant  smoke  ascending  from  my  fire  will  inform  you  where  I  am,"  or,  "the 
smoke  at  a  distance  will  rise  in  the  air  from  the  place  where  I  am,"  ti,  at  a  distance;  cva^ 
connects  the  subject  with  the  speaker,  the  next  t  is  probably  a  fulcrum  to  prevent  the 
concurrence  of  the  two  vowels :  testi',  sJiall  be  blowing. 

364.  Quantity  can  be  indicated  in  two  other  modes,  and  although  the  appearance  of  a 
printed  page  (whether  of  speech  or  music,)  is  secondary  to  its  accuracy  in  depicting  defi- 
nite phenomena,  these  modes  will  oflfend  the  eye  less  than  the  normal  Latin  mode.  There 
are  three  variations  in  the  width  of  type,  named  extended,  medium  and  condensed,  and  these 
would  answer  extremely  well  for  the  three  lengths  of  vowels,  except  that  i,  i,  are  not  dis- 
tinct."'    The  following  are  examples : — 

Extended,   A.EIOXJY 
Medium,      A  E  I  0  U  Y 
Condensed,  A    E  I  0    U  Y 

4C5.  In  Italic  typography,  the  termination  of  a,  e,  i,  u,  might  be  cut  oflf  at  its  lowest 
point,  and  be  supplied  with  a  separate  type  like  that  used  to  add  a  little  flourish  to  finals 
in  script  printing.  This  addition  could  be  broader  or  narrower  according  to  the  length  of 
the  vowel.f 

366.  Quantity  is  influenced  ^ j  consonants.  Sonants,  which  have  length  themselves, 
may  accompany  long  vowels,  and  surds  may  accompany  short  ones.  In  the  following 
pairs,  the  second  is  longer  than  the  first;  and  in  German,  zeichen  tolcen,  is  shorter  than 
zeig-en,  to  in-dic-ate. 

*  "As  short  vowels  and  consonants  are  generally  more  frequent,  it  is  practically  most  convenient  to  mark  length 
only.  .  .  .  The  condensed,  medium,  and  broad-faced  type  would  be  very  troublesome  to  distinguish  accurately  by 
the  eye.  I  do  not  think  you  would  approve  of  it  if  you  had  twenty  pages  of  such  type  (especially  in  Bmall  fonts) 
to  read."     ElUx,  MS. 

f  An  economic  provisional  typography  could  be  made  by  using  italics  (or  small  Roman  letters)  and  spaces,  but 
excluding  capitals.  Let  the  first  and  second  line  of  «,  n,  r,  a,  d,Pf  b,  g,  q,  y,  h,  k,  be  formed  of  separate  types, 
some  of  them  meaning  nothing  except  in  combination;  let  a  few  new  marks  be  made  (like  ^to  form  i^for  t,  to 
avoid  the  dot,)  and  let  the  required  letters  be  built  up  from  these,  as  in  music  printing.  Dr.  Bapp  (Grundrisz, 
Vol.  II.,  p.  8,  &c.,)  has  formed  in  this  manner  a  character  for  ni/out  of  ij  (inverted  italic  /)  the  two  members  being 
not  quite  in  contact. 


a  e  1  o  n  y . 
a  e  i  o  u  y. 

a  e  i  0  a  y. 


ANALYTIC  OUTIIOGKAIMIY. 


88 


fierce  fears  leaf     leave  strife   mtrive         height     hide 

late     laid  leak     league  bat      bad  jolut        joined 

rope     robe  feet     feed  hart    hard  lout        loud, 

367.  Consonants  have  a  recognised  qtutntity  in  Dacota,  where  s  and  sh  occur  short  and 
long.  •*  When  marked  thus  (a')  the  sound  is  prolonged."  (Riggs'  Dictionary,  Washington, 
1852.)  Thus  s'a  (sh^a)  is  red,  and  s"a  (sh"a)  to  shout.  Dr.  Lepsius  has  improperly 
transferred  the  mark  of  shortness  to  *«'  to  represent  Engliijh  «/»,  and  to  'z'  for  zh.  a.  The 
n  is  long  in  Italian  sedindo  pufito  (point,)  but  not  in  Spanish,  which  has  it  in  'Cervantes' 
=6erEaht£S,  where  it  bears  the  accent. 

368.  27t€  length  of  continuous  consonants  may  vary  with  the  sonant  or  surd  phase  of 
the  succeeding  one,  as  the  short  secondary  vowels  are  seldom  lengthened  in  English. 
The  following  are  examples  of  n,  1,  ng,  r,  m,  s,  thus  lengthened. 

8in"ce    sin's  han'k     hong'd        biuret     blurr'd        dam'pt    dam'nd 

pinch    impinge       pence     pens  else        ells  dossed      doz'd 

dint       dinned        wilt        willed         start       starred        etcirt 


edg'ed. 


369.  SCHEME  OF  the  vowels. 


.A. 


a  ^00.       \t  urn.  {a74. 
*  I1H02.  i  SuabUn.JSOl. 

t)  odd.  §405.  JL  odd.  J378. 

Oit«i.Hn. 

0  Fr.  §412.          O  §431.                 £  Suab.  §3a0a. 
Oi»«.  §416 g  thfre.  §388. 


Ofwy. 


O§430. 


I  f* 


O  Itat.  §118.  U  S436. 

YHW.  U?§437. 

a>?  §421.  q  Swed.  u.  §440. 

U  foot-  §422 g  Ru«B.  §393 

U  full y  Fr.  tt.  §436 marint.  §399. 

§430,    UWelsbu. 


ebb.  §384. 

e  Oud;rlt'hl. 

eight- i»^1- 

a  §392. 
e  ?  §391a. 
t  <t-  §39$. 


370.  77te  most  churacteristic  of  the  vowels  is  that  in  arm,  art,  father,  commonly  named 
Italian  A.  It  is  almost  universally  represented  by  its  proper  letter  A,  a,  a,  which  cannot 
be  departed  from  except  to  degrade  the  system  of  notation,  and  in  some  degree  to  injure 
the  etymologic  uses  of  the  Roman  alphabet.  For  if  'A'  may  represent  an  E  sound  to 
accommodate  some  English  words,  it  should  represent  0  (as  in  nose  from  nasus,)  to 
accommodate  those  languages  where  the  interchange  seems  to  be  on  the  labial  side, 
as  in  Russian,  Tawgy-Samojedic  (Gastrin,  §  7,)  and  Hungarian.  (Dankovszky's  Lexicon, 
1833,  p.  10.) 


PIf  ■ 


84 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


371.  By  mrrupHiuj  *A'  to  an  E  power,  and  refusing  to  show  that  I  and  U  have 
acquired  it  in  becoming  A'.I  and  A  V;  or,  by  exhibiting  *A'  aa  tlie  representative  of  a 
closer  SL'ind  than  it  was  made  to  represent,  and  by  keeping  back  the  coalescont  conso- 
nants to  their  vowel  basis,  instead  of  representing  diphthongs  by  their  true  elementary 
characters — the  English  vowel  scale  is  attempted  to  be  kept  within  the  range  of  nos.  2, 3, 
of  the  scale  in  §  24G-7. 

872.  T/ie  foUofwing  are  inscriptive  forma  of  A,  the  first  being  the  Phenician  and  Hebrew 
original,  after  the  hieroglyphic  form  was  left.     The  others  are  Greek. 

^AA/\/^;<IAAAa 

13U4&0780        10 

Of  these,  nos.  2,  9,  justify  a,  a;  and  a  form  based  on  *&'  with  the  upper  loop  removed; 
nos.  4,  5,  would  justify  capitals  on  these  bases,  and  the  Phonetic  Journal  character,  an  a 
reversed  (the  loop  on  the  right)  for  the  small  letterj  and  nos.  4,  5,  6,  would  round  into 
an  italic  v. 

373.  The  Sanscrit  analogue  of  Latin  A  is  assigned  the  power  of  tip  by  Sir  Wm.  Jones, 
and  by  Wilkins  (Sanscrit  Grammar,  London,  1808.)  When  it  is  long,  the  latter  says 
that — "in  kald  time  the  first  syllrble  is  pronounced  nearly  like  the  English  word  call — " 
a  sound  which  Vans  Kennedy  says  "does  not  exist  in  India."  He  says  too,  that  "  North 
of  the  Krishna  the  short  a  is  like  u  in  sun,  south  of  it,  long  a  is  pure,  and  the  short 
sound  as  in  hand."  The  vowels  of  up  and  at  are  extremely  doubtful  as  Sanscrit 
elements.  The  proper  character  for  A  (a,  a,)  is  used  by  Pickering,*  1831  j  EichhoiF,  1836; 
Comstock,  1846;  J.  P.  Hn.rt's  "World's  English,  (Newhaven,  U.  S.,  1851;)  Muller,  1855; 
Lepsius,  1855;  Ellis,  1856.  In  the  local  English  alphabets.  Pitman  (Phon.  J.,  1857,)  and 
Graham  (Phon.  Quarterly,)  use  a  reversed  a;  Masquerier,  (New  York,  1847,)  italic  a. 

\ ,  B,  in  urn. 

374.  Many  languages  want  this  vowel,  which  is  so  common  in  English  as  to  be  regarded 
as  the  characteristic  of  the  vowels.  It  has  not  been  assigned  to  Greek,  Italian,  Spanish, 
nor  German,  but  it  occurs  in  dialectic  German.  It  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  labial 
vowels  0,  U,  and  to  represent  it  by  an  o  or  u  character  would  falsify  its  a£Snities.  It  is 
close  (b)  in  up,  worth,  and  open  (b)  in  worm,  word,  urn.  The  effect  of  vxyrth  is  that  of  a 
short  syllable,  each  element  being  short,  (the  r  close ;)  whilst  worm  is  long  on  account  of 
the  open  and  longer  r.  The  vowel  «p  is  nasal  in  the  French  un;  but  M.  Pantoleon 
(in  Comstock's  Phon.  Mag.)  makes  this  a  nasal  eu  in  jeu,  and  Lepsius  refers  it  to  German  6. 

375.  In  the  writer's  French  pronunciation,  up  is  placed  in  me,  que,  querelle,  &c.,  accord- 
ing to  the  view  of  most  French  grammarians,  but  Lepsius  and  Ellis  consider  it  a  variety 

*  On  the  adoption  of  a  uniform^  orthography  for  the  Indian  Languages  of  North  America.  Memoirs  of  the 
American  Academy,  1831,  iv.,  319.  . 


. 


O    a 


ANALYTIC  ORTIIOGRAMIY. 


8ft 


of  0  or  eu,  in  which  they  may  be  correct.     Lcpaius  writes  it  o,  nnd  Ellif  (preferably) 
with  a  reversed  (not  inverted)  o  charnctcr. 

376.  Tlie  character  chonen  is  sulFiciently  distinct,  even  were  the  Bound  not  allied  to  A 
and  E.  A  script  form  can  be  made  without  raising  the  pen  to  make  the  loop,  and  it  may 
recall  r,  with  which  «  ia  -Hied.  In  fact,  there  seems  to  be  a  palatal  (or  middle  mouth) 
coalescent  in  Irish,  bet\  ^<p  and  a  short  open  smooth  r,  as  in  the  monosyllabic  word 
Gee  toind,  as  distinguished  from  Ge  goose,  but  the  former  word  varies  dialectically.  The 
effect  strikes  the  ear  somewhat  like  ij6-way,  yo-ay,  compressed  into  a  monosyllable;  but 
there  is  no  o,  oo,  w  sound.  This  element  requires  verification  in  nature,  as  it  has  not 
been  heard  recently,  and  the  language  has  been  very  seldom  heard. 

377.  Ellis  representa  the  vowel  of  up  by  o;*  Max  Miiller  by  a  cipher  0;  Lepsius  by  o; 
Bishop  Wilkins  (Real  Character,  1GG8,)  by  y  with  a  terminal  flourish;  llalef  by  a  cha- 
racter like  inverted  iJ;  Rapp,  a;  Pitman,  »;  (Cornstock,  U>  ">  Longley,  U,  u;  Antrim,  o; 
and  II.  M.  Parkhurst,  u  (Ploughshare,  Boston,  U.  S.,  1853.)  It  is  doubtful  whether  the 
modification  for  open  and  close,  should  be  made  in  the  upper  hook  or  lower  dot;  but  the 
former  is  preferred,  because  it  leaves  the  character  more  distinct  from  e. 

A,  A,  {&,  a,)  in  add. 

378.  With  very  little  affinity  to  A,  this  sound  usurps  its  character  in  some  alphabets.  It 
is  more  nearly  allied  to  ebb,  but  not  enough  to  have  a  letter  on  the  same  basis,  like  that 
of  Lepsius.  Rapp  writes  it  a;  Comstock,  A,  a,  Hart  a,  Masquerier  a,  a;  and  Pitman, 
Graham,  Parkhurst,  Kneeland,  and  Longley  A,  a. 

379.  TJie  people  of  BatJi,  England,  are  said  to  pronounce  the  name  of  the  town  long 
(=  bi0J)  and  it  is  strictly  long  and  short  in  Welsh,  as  in  h^x  a  hook;  hx'-/  little.  It 
seems  to  be  lengthened  in  the  following  words,  but  as  the  author  speaks  this  dialect,§  the 

observation  must  be  accepted  with  caution. 

« 

*  Universal  writing  and  printing  with  ordinary  letters,  Edinb.,  1856. 

-j*  Ethnography  and  Philology  of  the  U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition,  1846. .  A  valuable  work  philologically,  but 
not  phonetically.  He  does  not  think  it  necessary  to  indicate  French  u;  ho  uses  A  for  the  power  in  mart,  mat, 
(but,  probably,  did  he  hear  the  latter;)  E  (or /ate,  met;  I  for  machine,  pin — p.  xii.     1846. 

J  The  Rev.  J.  G.  Woods  (Sketches  of  Animal  Life,  2d  Series,  London  1855,  p.  247,)  mentions  "  The  singular 
mode  of  pronouncing  the  word  which  is  used  by  those  who  have  resided  there.  Instead  of  enunciating  the  word 
Bath  in  a  clear  and  open  manner,  it  appears  to  be  correct  to  elongate  it  into  an  effeminate  drawl,  thus — B-a-a-a-ath, 
pronouncing  the  towoI  like  a  in  cat."  "  The  sound  is  common  over  Wilts  and  Somerset,  and  it  may  extend  to 
Gloucester  and  South  Wales.  .  .  .  The  long  sound  is  the  name  of  the  first  letter  of  the  alphabet  in  Iri^h  English. 
.  .  .  Our  ladies  often  say  graas,  caalf,  haalf,  paas,  aask.  Many  orthoepists  (Worcester  and  Bell,)  have  recog- 
nised an  intermediate  vowel." — Ellis,  MS.  note. 

§  Heard  in  Philadelphia,  and  used  by  Walker,  who  puts  bis  a*  of/at,  in  grass,  grasp,  branch,  grant,  pass,  fast, 
the  proper  sound  being  probably  French  &,  as  in  pass,  &c.  .  ^ 

12 


O    i\ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MTS) 


/. 


1.0    ^^  tsi 


u  184 


I.I 


S?  Ufi    |2.0 


L2g|||U    1 1.6 


Fhotographic 

^Sciences 

CorparatJon 


23  WBT  MAIN  STRIIT 

WIBSTIR,N.Y.  MSM 

(716)t72-4S03 


\ 


i^' 


■17 


<^ 


4S> 


86 


ANALTTIO  ORTHOORAPHT. 


pan 

pfinic 

dam 

band 

banish 

dram 

fan 

fancy 

lamb 

man 

tan 

bad 

can,  n. 

can,  verb. 

glad 

bran 

ran 

bag 

Ann 

an,  Anna 

cag 

Sam 

sample 

drag 

madder,  a((/ 

madder 

ma'am 

mammon 

baa 

badger 

gas,  gaz 

gash,  as 

lass 

lash 

bread 

bred 

dead 

Dedham 

bed 

sped. 

ham 
ram 
lamp 
pad 
lad 

tag,  beg 
wag,  keg 
dragon 

380.  It  occurs  in  provincial  Oerman,  as  in  bi'ric,  (with  the  vowels  of  b&rrier)  for  berg 
(bero)  a  hill.  A  native  of  Gerstungen  (=  G^rstiiran)  in  Saxe  Weimer,  pronounced  the 
first  syllable  of  this  name  with  s.  in  arroio.  Compare  thatch,  deck;  catch,  -|  ketch;  have, 
•\  hev;  scalp,  -j  scelp;  German  and  English  felt  fat;  krebs  crc.6;' {eat /oat,  adj.;  Gr.  rpixto 
(I  run,)  track,  f 

381.  It  has  a  long  and  open  German  provincial  (Suabian)  form,  being  used  for  long  open 
a  (e)  as  in  bjL'r  (bicr)  for  bar,  (a  bear.)  This  bears  the  same  relation  to  add  that  French 
S  in  merae  bears  to  e  in  memory. 

382.  This  vowel  is  nasalised  and  short  in  the  French  Jin  (end)  =fi,;  pain  (bread)  = 
pA,.  But  some  consider  this  a  nasal  of  ebb,*  either  because  such  a  sound  is  used,  (the 
Polish  e,?)  or  because  the  French  (being  without  the  pure  add)  refer  their  nasal  m  to  the 
nearest  pure  sound  known  to  them. 

383.  The  cJiaracter  i.is  a  good  one,  and  may  be  written  with  Greek  a,  into  which  '&/ 
degenerates  in  writing.  The  Anglish  se  is  accessible  for  the  open  sound,  whilst  a  small 
*&'  would  admit  of  being  trimmed  into  several  distinct  shapes  for  varieties  of  sound. 

E,  e,  in  ebb. 

384.  Most  toriters pervert  *e'  to  the  use  of  this  sound,  an  error  which  arose  from  regard- 
ing the  vowels  of  thei/  them  as  variations  in  quantity.  If  the  Roman  alphabet  is  to  be  ad- 
hered to  (( )» the  half  of '  e '  might  be  used  for  it,  but  a  Romanised  form  of  Greek  e  (like 
that  of  Mr.  Pitman)  is  much  to  be  preferred, — and  it  is  shown  as.  a  Greek  form  in  Franz, 
p.  245,  line  10  from  below. 

385.  The  secondary  vowels  ii,  ebb,  were  not  allowed  to  Latin,  (§  93)  because  there  is  no 
evidence  that  they  were  Latin  sounds;  and  although  ebb  occurs  in  Spanish f  (as  in  el  <Ae, 

*  Value  compares  nasal  tn  to  English  ain  in  faint;  Bolmar  to  en  in  length;  Gouraud  to  en  in  lent;  and  Picot 
to  an  in  vanquish.     Pantol^n  puts  the  e  of '  th@re '  (nasal)  in  Fr.  point,  pain,  aein,  and  of '  end '  in  bien,  moyen. 

f  Even  this  is  not  admitted  in  Cubi's  "Nuovo  Sistema"  (of  English  for  Spaniards,)  published  by  I.  Pitman, 
Bath,  1851 — where  the  vowels  of  HI,  ell,  am,  up,  olive,  are  not  provided  with  Spanish  key  words ;  bat  he  assigns 
the  whole  of  them  to  Gatalonian. 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


87 


estS  thi9  one,)  it  is  not  near  as  frequent  as  an  Englishman  might  suppose.  The  foUowiug 
examples  are  from  Vingut's  Spanish  Grammar  (New  York,  1853,)  with  his  pronunciation 
in  English  spelling — but  we  think  that  some  of  these  have  e. 


par^ntesis 

crisis 

jeneral 

m^ico 

tres  (Lat.  tres) 

frecuentamente 


tenedor        tainaiddr 
comodidad  co-mo-dee-dad 
failcetheetar 
Ah-see-ah-tee-co 
aintray 


pa-ram-tai-sees 

creesees 

hai-nai-ral  felicitar 

mai-dee-co  Asiatico 

trais  entre 

fraikwaintaimaintay         pez  (fish)     paith. 
Nor  has  E  become  e  in  French,  where  it  might  be  expected  from  English  Latin,  as  in 
6I^gant,  6I6phant,  ^legie,  6motique,  n6c^sit6,  efiacer,  exact,  et; — and  for  que,  le,  me,  ne, 
de,  cela,  doucement,  vivcment, — Vad6  puts  qu6,  me,  vivement,  &c.,  in  the  mouth  of  a 
Gascon. 

386.  The  vowel  e  occurs  in  Italian  timpo,  tirra,  Merciirio ;  in  the  German  rechnung 
(a  reckoning;)  pelz  (pelt,  fur,)  schmeltzen  (to  smelt,)  rector  (rector.)  German  short  a 
(e)  often  falls  into  this  sound,  as  in  prachtig  (sumptuous.)  In  EUenic,  e  and  at  are  alike, 
as  in  aet,  said. 

387.  Frenchmen  state  thai  e  occurs  in  elle,  quel,  r^gle;  M.  Value  gives  get  as  the  key 

word  for  e  and  e;  Bolmar  gives  mare  for  e,  and  there  (when  emphatic)  for  e;  and  Pantoleon 

puts  e  of  there  in  est,  les,  vrai,  mais,  and  that  of  ebb  in  olle,  quelque,  cher,  superb,  aime. 

He  writes  tu  avals  with  the  former,  and  il  avail  with  the  latter,  whilst  Bolmar  makes 

them  both  e. 

e,  c,  (^,  €,)  in  there. 

388.  Tlie  vowel  o/ehb,  with  a  more  open  aperture,  is  long  and  accented  in  the  Italian 
m  e  died,  temp  e  sta,  cielo,  and  short  in  the  verb  e  (is,)  ab-biet-to.  It  is  the  French  e  in 
meme,  tSte,  fenetre,  maitre,  haie,  Aix  (=  e  s,)  air,  vaisseau.  The  same  sound  seems  to 
occur  shorter  in  trompette,  which  is  not  the  vowel  of  petty.  It  occurs  in  the  Coordish 
fred  (a  pack  on  a  horse,)  with  smooth  r.  Volney  writes  it  ai;  Lepsius,  e  (in  "Fr.  mdre, 
Ger.  bar;")  Comstock  a  good  character  (§  398,)  but  he  considers  it  the  representative  of  a 
double  sound,  as  in  the-ur  for  there. 

389.  It  is  the  German  a  long  in  mahre  (mare,)  mahrchen,  fehlen,  kehle,  ^ahre,  but 
wehre  has  E  long.  The  theoretic  short  sound  (c)  falls  into  e,  as  in  stalle  (stalls,)  commonly 
pronounced  like  stelle  (station.)  In  German,  the  letters  a,  6,  ii,  are  sometimes  more 
correctly  printed  with  a  minute  (*)  instead  of  the  dots,  and  Zieman*  has  restricted  the 
dotted  characters  to  the  short  sounds,  and  the  others  to  the  long  ones. 

*  Mittelhoohdeutschea  WSrterbuoh,  188»i. , 


!l 


88  ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

,  390.  The  character  preferred  here  is  a  modification  of  e,  being  (c)  a  form  of  Greek  tyr>e 
in  use,  to  be  assigned  to  French  e.  If  the  Roman  alphabet,  is  adhered  to,  the  type  can  be 
made  by  cutting  away  the  right  half  of  'e;'  and  e  can  be  made  in  the  same  manner, 
retaining  the  circumflex, — or  excluaing  it,  and  mutilating  the  type  less  than  for  e,  giving 
it  the  appearance  of  Anglish  6.  But  (S )  a  character  formed  from  (">)  Greek  om^ga,  is 
preferred  for  the  e  sound,  and  accentualised  letters  are  not  to  be  used  to  indicate  quality. 
a.  We  quote  here  doubtfully,  a  Suabian  open  vowel  perhaps  between  there  and  Mp,  and 
heard  in  reiten,  seide,  weiss,  fenster,  stelle,  and  in  regen  (to  move,)  whilst  regen  (rain)  has  e. 

e,  in  vein,  eight. 

391.  The  English  ay  in  pay,  paid,  day,  weigh,  ale,  rage,  is  short  in  weight,  hate,  acre, 
A'mos,  A'bram,  ape,  plague,  spade.  German  weh  (wo,)*reh  (roe,)  je,  planet,  meer, 
mehr  (more,  but  mahr  tidings  has  ^,)  edel,  ehre,  jedoch.  The  Italian  "e  chiuso"  has  this 
quality,  as  in  male,  ottobre  (with  "o  chiuso,")  but  it  is  nearly  always  short.  Most  authors 
assign  this  sound  to  French  €,  called  '6  fermc,'  but  Dr.  Latham  assigns  this  6  a  closer 
aperture,  for  he  says — <'  This  is  a  sound  allied  to,  but  different  from,  the  a  in  fate,  and 
the  ee  in  feet.  It  is  intermediate  to  the  two."  a.  Dankovszky  says  the  Hungarian 
"6  est  medius  sonus  inter  e  et  i,"  but  his  'e'  is  uncertain.  Olivier  (Les  Sons  de  la  Parole, 
1844,)  makes  e  identic  with  I  in  the  position  of  the  mouth. 

8  in  -ment,  -erne. 

392.  Tliere  is  an  obscure  vowel  in  English,  having  more  aperture  than  that  of  ill,  and 
less  than  that  of  ail.  It  is  used  to  separate  consonants  by  such  an  amount  of  vocality  as 
may  be  secured  without  setting  the  organs  for  a  particular  vowel.  It  is  most  readily 
determined  between  surds,  and  it  is  often  confounded  and  perhaps  interchanged  with  the 
vowel  of  up.  It  occurs  in  the  natural  pronunciation  of  the  last  syllable  of  worded, 
blended,  splendid,  sordid,  livid,  ballad,  salad,  surfeit,  buffet,  opposes,  doses,  roses,  losses, 
misses,  poorer,  horror.  Christian,  onion,  and  the  suffixes  -ment,  -ant,  -ance,  -ent,  -ence. 

392a.  Perhaps  this  vowel  should  be  indicated  by  the  least  mark  for  the  phase  of  the 
least  distinctness  (§  484,) — a  dot  beneath  the  letter  of  some  recognised  vowel  of  about 
the  same  aperture.  It  is  so  evanescent,  that  it  is  often  replaced  by  a  consonant  vocality 
without  attracting  attention,  as  in  saying  hors'z,  horsz,  horszs,  or  (using  a  faint  smooth 
r,)  hors'z. 

3926.  Bapp  uses  'a'  for  this  sound,  and  for  the  closer  form  allied  to  «rn,  placing  it  in 
must,  honey,  a,  an,  master,  fever.  H.  M.  Parkhurst  uses  a  tailed  'e'  in  present,  convenient, 
universe,  order,  and  in  the  suffixes  -er,  -ent,  -ency,  -ment;  and  the  vowel  of  up,  in  up, 
money,  impression,  occur,  SQme.     Longley  uses  e  in  earth,  verb,  first,  person,  deserve,  sir. 


# 


ANALTTIC  ORTHOGRAPHT. 


89 


skirt,  thirty,  verge, — using  the  vowel  of  ebb  in  very,  discovery,  another,  interest,  and  that 
of  up  in  worse;  so  that  he  can  hardly  have  the  Irish  dialect  in  view.  Graham  proposes 
a  peculiar  *e'  for  her,  bird. 

392c.  With  Rapp,  we  assign  this  vowel  to  German,  as  in  welches,  verlieren,  verlassen 
(or  even  frlasn.)  The  vowel  of  up  is  not  admissible  in  normal  German,  although  it  is 
common  enough  in  dialects,  and  associated  with  short  o,  as  in  kopf,  toll.  In  our  examples, 
the  theoretical  vowel  is  that  of  eljb. 

9,  the  Russian  Li.  (g,  in  Turkish.) 

393.  This  vowel  atrikea  the  ear  like  the  pinched  German  o,  ii,  to  which  series  it  may 
belong;  but  the  lips  are  not  pursed,  the  effect  being  due  to  the  enlarged  cavity  of  the 
mouth.  The  quality  is  perhaps  nearest  to  the  vowel  of  if,  but  the  jaws  are  more 
separated,  and  the  lips  are  retracted  as  for  I.  It  is  long  and  short,  and  is  said  to  be  the 
sound  represented  in  Polish  by  y.  Eichhoff  (1836)  uses  *y'  for  it;  Castren  (1854)  the 
same,  with  an  angular  circumflex  when  long;  and  Ellis  uses  a  small  capital  t.  We 
propose  a  character  formed  from  inverted  fi,  which  is  sufficiently  distinct,  whilst  it  bears 
some  resemblance  to  the  Russian  and  Polish  forms — and  'y'  must  be  restricted  to  its 
historic  value. 

393a.  Gastrin  mentions  this  as  a  Samojedic  vowel,  and  he  says  that  in  making  it,  the 
end  of  the  tongue  is  prest  against  the  base  of  the  lower  teeth.  §  344.  He  states  that  in 
several  dialects,  'i,'  in  certain  conditions,  has  something  of  this  sound. 

394.  This  Slavonic  vowel  occurs  in  Jakutish  (Bohtlingk,)  and  is  probably  the  key  to  an 

Altai-Tatar  infusion,  as  it  is  said  by  Redhouse  and  Bohtlingk  to  occur  in  Turkish.     But 

S^uiiic',  who  quotes  Turkish  very  freely,  in  illustration  of  the  elements,  does  not  admit  it. 

We  have  not  been  able  to  compare  the  two,  having  heard  them  with  an  interval  of  six 

years.     They  are  closely  allied,  and  our  impression  is  that  the  Russian  phase  is  based  on 

ooze,  and  the  Turkish  on  is. 

I,  in  pit. 

395.  The  English  vowel  of  it,  pit,  pin,  &c.,  frequently  formed  out  of  a  shortened  I,  and 
as  'e'  is  one  of  its  equivalents,  it  often  takes  the  secondary  power,  as  in  believe,  regret, 
descend,  which  cannot  differ  from  dispose;"'  and  we  find  in  old  English — biginiian,  1250; 
began,  bithoute,  1280,  without  the  unenglish  gh;  and  Chaucer  uses  dispise,  discent. 

396.  It  is  the  German  vowel  of  kinn  (chin,)  hitzig,  brilig,  will,  bild ;  and  the  initial  of 
the  Belgian  diphthong  ieuw  (and  perhaps,  in  some  cases,  the  Welsh  uw.)  It  is  adopted 
for  the  English  u  in  tube,  (tiwb)  in  Comstock's  alphabet — a  diphthong  known  to  the  writer. 

*  See  the  Phonotypio  Journal,  1846,  for  this  vowel  in  select,  secure,  reriew,  degree,  defect,  desire,  disease, 
denote,  prepare,  December,  and  many  more. 


li 


90 


ANALTHO  OBTHOORAPHT. 


397.  The  form  is  accessible  in  a  mutilated  (U,  u,  t,)  and  it  will  best  suit  the  languages 
in  which  I,  J,  are  used  correctly,  among  which  it  is  hoped  English  will  be  one.  Thus 
the  series  J  I  L  ^"ill  exhibit  normal  I  turning  to  J  in  the  closing,  and  L  in  the  opening 
direction;  and  there  are  good  reasons  why  they  should  resemble.  Their  affinity  causes 
an  interchange  in  Chria-tian  (crist''jjan,  -t'^jan,  or  -tfan,)  with  J,  and  Chris-ti-anity  with  L. 
Compare  o-li-o,  o-lio  (oho,  oljo,)  fil-i-al,  fil-ial,  foliate,  folio;  il-i-ad,  il-iad,  va-ri-ous, 
va-rious,  cordial-ity,  idiot,  previous,  devious. 

398.  Tliia  vowel  is  commonly  confounded  with  I,  but  it  has  a  more  open  jaw  aperture, 
whilst  each  may  be  lengthened  or  shortened.  When  made  long,  it  suggests  long  g,  but 
they  differ.  The  following  notations  have  been  proposed  for  e  in  they,  s  in  Hiem,  e  theref 
i  in  he,  and  i  in  his. 

Rapp,  1836, 
Lepsius,  1855, 
Max  Miiller,  1855, 
Ellis,  1856, 
Pitman,  1856, 
Pitman,  Jan.,  1852, 
Graham,  Adair, 
Kneeland,  1824, 
Hart,  1851, 
Comstock,  1846, 
Masquerier,  ]847, 
Antrim,  1843, 
Haldeman,  1846. 
Reynolds,  1846,  (§545) 
_     Hale,  1846;  Matushik,  1837,  « 
Poklukar,  S^unic',  &c., 

1, 1,  i,  in  field. 
399.  Tlie  universal  I,  is  long  in  Italian  id  (Lat.  ego,  1,)  and  short  in  f^lIcItarS,  with 
true  e.    In  English  it  is  long  in  machine,  marine,  fiend,  fee,  tea,  bee,  grieve,  eel.    It  is 

*  Perverting  I  to  eye.  In  citing  the  powers  of  English  'i,'  that  of  marine  is  omitted,  and  not  because  it  is  i>e, 
for  e,  and  not  o — e  is  cited  for  the  power  in  eve.  The  sixteen  tone  marks  of  "Comstook's  Perfect  Alphabet" 
.  ..."  not  only  represent  accent,  but  inflection  and  intonation  or  melody."  But  as  these  differ  as  much  as  itress 
and  pitch  in  music,  they  cannot  bo  represented  by  the  same  mark  in  a  rational  system.  The  inflection  of  unac- 
cented syllables  is  not  marked,  hence  (p.  27)  although  "refined^."  and  "region^."  close  sentences,  the  final  syl- 
lable of  the  latter  is  represented  as  unaffected,  and  the  first  syllable  as  falling,  because  this  mark  means  both  fall- 
ing inflection  and  accent.    This  notation  has  been  used  by  its  author  since  1841. 


e 

8 

6 

i 

I 

1 

i 

a 

i 

i 

t'  . 

1 

i 

i 

i 

'.# ' 

e 

a 

i 

• 

1 

• 

8 

ee 

• 

I 

• 

8 

e 

e 

i 

it 

it 

('( 

« 

(t 

u 

« 

« 

a 

tt 

i 

« 

e 

e 

& 

i 

<( 

E 

0 

j« 

I 

a 

E 

• 

1 

a) 

a 

y 

e 

8 

1 

(( 

« 

u 

(( 

e 

• 

1 

K 

« 

u 

ANALTTIO  ORTHOGRAPHT. 


91 


short  in  Squal,  educe,  deceit,  heat,  beet,  reef,  grief,  teeth.  Qerman  examplea  are  vieh, 
ivleder  (against,)  wider  (again,)  vile  viel  (how  much,)  vielleicht  (perhaps.)  It  is  medial 
in  knie  (knee.)  French  examplea  are  surprise,  vive,  ile,  style,  11,  \If,  physique,  Imiter, 
liquide,  visite,  politique,  which  must  not  be  pronounced  like  the  English  physic,  &o.,  with 
the  vowel  of  pit.    The  following  are  perhaps  medial, — prodige,  cidre,  ligue,  vite,  empire. 

^ ,  (a,  ft,)  in  aisle,  Cairo.  (§  372,  4,  5.) 

400.  Proceeding  in  the  labial  direction  from  A,  the  first  element  is  French  a  in  ame,  patte. 
The  former  is  commonly  received  as  the  vowel  of  arm,  the  latter  of  pat.  Du  ponceau*  in 
1817  made  the  distinction.  He  says  that  French  a  occurs  in  the  English  diphthongs  i 
and  ou,  and  that  the  sound  is  between  ah  and  awe,  being  aJi  pronounced  as  full  and  broadly 
as  possible  without  falling  into  aioe.  The  initial  of  English  i  (or  e  in  height,)  differs  in 
being  pronounced  up  and  at;  whilst  the  orthography  *ou'  was  partly  intended  to  repre- 
sent the  French  vowel  of  could,  and  partly  the  Saxon  (Plattdeutsch)  diphthong,  which 
we  have  heard,  and  consider  to  have  the  initial  of  odd. 

401.  Ellis  uses  a  with  a  horizontal  medial  line  for  it,  and  Comstock^,  and  a  lowercase 
form  (a)  with  the  base  open,  and  the  left  branch  turned  outwards.  Pantol^n  admits 
this  sound  when  short,  as  in  a,  la,  pas,  ma,  e",  il  a,  and  in  both  syllables  of  voila,  avoir ; 
but  he  places  the  true  A  in  a°,  t'l  a,  car,  toi,  voix,  naif,  matelot.  This  is  probably  the 
proper  vowel  for  grass,  grant,  pass,  alas,  (Fr.  h61as.)  See  §  379,  note.  When  accessible, 
we  prefer  Mr.  Pitman's  reversed  a  for  French  a.  '    ^ 

H*  (»)  in  awe. 

402.  This  sound  lies  between  A  and  0,  and  is  common  in  several  German  dialects,  and 
in  Bengalee,  where  na'^e  is  nine.  The  Germans  represent  it  very  commonly  by  a,  adopt- 
ing the  Swedish  mode,  where  however  the  sound  seems  to  be  a  kind  of  o.  Franz,  Epi- 
graph. Gr.  p.  246,  line  1,  has  a  Greek  character  very  like  0. 

403.  This  awe  is  not  to  be  determined  by  its  length,  but  by  its  quality.  It  is  long  in 
raw,  flaw,  law,  caw,  all,  pall,  call,  thawed,  laud,  hawk; — medial  in  loss,  cross,  tossed,  frost, 
long,  song,  strong,  or,  for,  Lrd,  order,  border,  war,  warrior,  corn,  adorn,  born,  warn,  horn, 
morn,  storm,  form,  warm,  normal,  cork,  wan,  swan,  dawn,  fond,  bond,  pond,  exhaust, 
false,  often,  soften,  gorge,  George; — and  short  in  squash,  wash,  (cf.  rush,  push,)  author, 
(cf.  dath,  pith,)  watch,  water,  slaughter,  quart,  quarter,  wart,  short,  mortar,  horse,  (cf. 
curse,)  remorse,  former,  often,  north,  moth,  fault,  falter,  paltry. 

404.  For  the  vowel  pair  in  awe,  odd,  Ellis  uses  W),t  t>;t  Comstock,  Pitman  and  Graham 
o,  o;  Bishop  Wilkins  Greek  a;  Hale  u  in  a  single  character;  Hart  andKneeland  0  with  a 
horizontal  medial  line;  Parkhurst  &,t  o;  Lepsius  o,  p;  Masquerier  o,  using  one  sign  for 

*  Am.  Phil.  Trans.,  1818,  Vol.  I,  p.  268.  f  With  the  appendage  on  the  right 


M 


ANALTTIC  ORTHOORAPBT. 


both,  (like  Wilkins,  Hale,  and  Hart,)  a  sign  made  of  b, — and  d,  p,  q,  would  afford  allied 

ones.    For  common  typography,  we  propose  n,  5,  with  ei  (closed)  as  the  writing  form  of 

n  or  its  varieties. 

t>  in  odd, 

405.  17iis  d^ers/rom  tlie  preceding  in  being  formed  with  less  aperture.  It  is  sJiort  in 
not,  nod,  hod,  what,  squatter  (cf.  the  open  water,)  morrow,  borrow,  sorrow,  horror,  choice, 
ponder,  throng,  prong;  medial  in  on,  yon,  John,  God,  rod,  gone,  aught,  thought,  bought, 
caught,  naught,  fought,  sauce,  loiter,  boy,  and  perhaps  long  in  coy,  oil.  Some  of  these 
medials  may  belong  to  awe,  and  some  of  those  to  this  head. 

406.  TJie  accuracy  of  these  examples  is  not  expected  to  be  admitted  in  detail,  because 
practice  between  the  two  vowels  is  not  uniform;  yet  it  is  probable  that  no  one  puts  the 
vowel  oi  potter  or  the  quantity  of  fall,  in  water,  which  is  neither  wawter  nor  wotter.  In 
the  following  table,  the  medial  examples  have  been  chosen  without  regard  to  the  vowel 
they  contain.  ^ 

gaud        God        nod  gnaw'r  nor        Nor'ich  Ki 

awe         or  orange  rawed    rod        Rodney 

fawned    fond       astonish  awed      aught    odd 

*    thawed    thought  Thoth  laws      loss        lozenge 

407.  In  the  next  table,  No.  1  is  the  long,  2  the  short,  and  3  the  medial  quantity  of  atoc; 
4  is  the  medial  and  5  the  short  quantity  of  odd. 


1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 


pawned 

author 

po'nd 

roM 

ponder 


waw 

water 

wa^r 

Go^'d 

body 


squaw 
squash 
swa'n 


yawn 
want 
wa^n 
go'ne 


haw 

horse 

ho'rn 

Jo'hn 

horror 


thou'ght 

squat  honest 

408.  Indications  of  quantity  cannot  be  dispensed  with  here,  ft,  (or  whatever  character 
is  used)  might  stand  for  the  vowel  of  odd,  and  have  a  widened  form,  or  a  superior  dot 
(')  after  the  letter,  for  its  medials;  whilst  n  (or  its  representative)  might  be  considered 
medial,  and  have  a  long  mark  for  atoe,  since  the  medials  of  the  close  vowel,  and  the  longs 
of  the  open  one  are  the  rarest. 

409.  It  is  a  difficult  problem  to  supply  avx  and  odd  with  suitable  characters.  They 
have  no  more  right  to  be  formed  on  an  <0'  than  on  an  'A'  basis,  and  the  available  forms 
of  *0'  should  not  be  drawn  upon  too  largely  for  English,  being  required  for  French  o,  the 
two  Italian  kinds,  and  perhaps  others  among  described  or  undetected  phases,  a.  fl,  n,  or 
n,  n,  would  form  a  good  pair,  and  they  recall  A,  0,  but  n  is  perhaps  too  much  like  n  for 
blurred  print.     The  preceding,  with  ft,  are  not  sufficiently  alike,  because  the  medial 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


93 


quantities  may  be  oonfused  by  the  same  person  in  the  same  word.    Other  pairs  are 
furnished  by  the  rejected  forms  of  the  Phonotypic  Journal,  as  a,  n,  or  n. 

410.  The  chief  difficulty  is  in  finding  approximate  forms  which  can  be  readily  made 

with  the  pen.    One  of  the  preceding  forms  might  answer  for  the  open  sound  of  atoe,  and 

9  (which  approaches  Gothic  0,)  for  the  close  one.    The  *  A'  part  of  the  latter  could  be  so 

much  reduced  as  to  make  the  character  approach  q,  with  the  mark  in  contact.    A  pair 

like  a  with  the  upper  or  o  part  large  for  odd,  and  A  the  lower  or  a  part  large  for  atoe, 

would  solve  the  problem  in  print,  but  they  would  be  likely  to  take  an  e  form  in  writing. 

A  writing  character  formed  of  ei  united,  would  answer  for  the  atoe,  and  the  script  a 

recommended  for  aisle  (the  middle  of  the  t  portion  broken  towards  the  left,)  for  the  closer 

sound;  or,  the  closed  et  character  (Hale's  aw  long  and  short,)  might  have  the  close  power, 

and  have  the  t  part  descending  in  a  short  tail,  for  the  open  sound,  or  the  e  portion  with 

the  break  thrown  to  the  left. 

0,  Italian  "o  aperto." 

411.  To  an  unfamiliar  ear  this  vowel  is  referred  at  one  time  to  0  and  at  another  to 
av)e,  and  if  an  Italian  speaks  English  with  it,  the  word  hold  seems  to  be  bald^  and  bald 
seems  hold.  It  is  long  in  'poco,'  little;  pdrto,  port;  sposo,  husband;  and  short  in  trdppo, 
too  much;  ndttS,  night;  cdsa,  tblng.  Mr.  Ellis's  key  words  are  roco  (hoarse,)  and  rdcco 
(crozier,)  and  he  refers  to  this  sound,  Swedish  a°  and  Danish  aa;  and  with  doubt  the 
French  vowel  of  hotte,  homme,  with  which  we  do  tVil  agree.  Mr.  Ellis's  character  is  a 
good  one,  a  Q  form  with  the  tail  on  the  left — which  might  end  unth  a  dot  when  the  vowel 
is  short.  Dr.  Comstock  uses  0  with  a  minute  vertical  tail  below,  for  the  short  vowel  of 
Fr.  bonne  (good,)  Ital.  dotto  (learned;)  and  he  places  the  vowel  of  own  in  the  French 
trone  (throne,)  and  Italian  dolce  (sweet,)  the  latter  being  "o  chiueo"  of  the  Italian  gram- 
marians. An  Italian  grammarian  compares  the  "o  aperto"  to  the  French  o  in  hotte — 
"  r  0  aperto  detto  da  Franc^si  aigu  o  href,  ha  il  suono  dell  '0  aperto  toscano,  come  hotte  (o-t.)" 

0,  French  o. 

412.  This  eoimd  aeema  to  the  writer  to  be  more  open  than  owey  and  closer  than  o  aperto, 
and  his  impression  is  that  the  long  and  short  sound  have  the  same  quality.*    Gouraud 

*  The  Author's  French  pronunciation  was  acquired  from  heterogeneons  sources,  chiefly  English  and  German, 
and  although  he  las  occasionally  revised  it  in  casual  intercourse  with  Frenchmen,  early  hahits  are  continually 
ofossing  later  opinions.  His  practice  is  to  pronounoe  6  as  oim,  bfinne  as  English  hone  shortened,  and  m6n  with 
the  same  nasalised.  His  ideas  of  Spanish  pronunciation  were  derived  from  a  South  American,  whilst  his  English 
is  partly  provincial.  On  the  other  hand,  his  ear  is  good  enough  to  enable  him  to  tune  a  piano,  (exoept  in  the 
low  bass  notes,)  and  to  distinguuh  across  a  room  whether  a  speaker  of  German  uses  the  (German  to  or  English  v, 
firovided  the  voice  is  fiuniliar. 

13 


94 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOaRAPHT. 


m 


cites  three  kinds  of  French  o,  referring  that  of  poste,  note,  code,  to  o  in  not;  sort,  iilort, 
corde,  to  Eng.  nor;  and  cote,  fnute,  beau,  to  Eng.  note. 

413.  JMniar  nibnit^  two,  the  o  of  Eng.  opera  in  opfera,  homme,  loge,  remords,  offense, 
comme,  notre;  and  o  ototjer,  in  auteur,  oter,  impot,  zero,  faute,  rose.  Value  admits  two, 
as  in  Eng.  no,  nor;  and  Pantolton  two,  the  first  (without  English  equivalent,)  in  bonne, 
homme,  trop,  au,  porter,  octobre;  the  second  (in  Eng.  old,)  as  in  tr6ne,  eau,  beau,  matelot. 

414.  Picot  admits  two,  the  first  "close,  that  of  o  in  trop,  nearly  that  of  o  in  nor;^  and 
"  open,  that  of  6  in  tot,  nearly  that  of  o  in  over."  Chesnier  admits  two,  as  in  homme,  au- 
tcl ;  and  Olivier  two,  as  in  mobile,  cor;  and  in  beau,  dos.  In  this  treatise  o  (formed  from 
Q)  will  be  used  provisionally  for  the  short  sound,  and  0  for  the  long  one. 

416.  The  New  England  or  Yankee  o  in  whole,  coat,  is  a  short  sound  with  a  wider  aper- 
ture of  jaw  than  owe,  but  not  (perhaps)  of  lip.  It  has  been  casually  heard,  but  not  studied, 
and  we  refer  it  to  the  French  o  in  bonne.     Mr.  Graham  uses  o  for  it. 

0,  English,  in  hone  boat. 

416.  This  well  Jcnoicn  sound  is  long  in  moan,  loan,  owe,  go,  low,  foe,  coal,  cone,  bore, 
roar,  bowl,  soul ;  and  short  in  over,  obey,  open,  opinion,  onyx,  onerous,  oak,  ochre,  rogue, 
oats,  opium;  and  medial  in  going,  showy.     It  does  not  occur  in  Italian. 

417.  O  is  long  in  the  German  ton,  dom,  hof,  hoch,  lob,  tod,  trog,  mohn,  lohn,  moor, 
mond;  medial  in  oder,  also,  vor,  von,  wo,  ob,  oheim;  and  sJiort  in  wohin,  hofnung,  ost, 
ofen,  ober,  koch,  loch,  zo-o-log.  Hale,  Ellis,  Hart,  Masquerier,  &c.,  use  0;  Pitman  and 
Graham  &  with  the  tail  on  the  right;  Longley  and  Farkhurst  a  closed  o;  and  Comstock 
a,  to.  Kneeland  uses  6  as  in  know,  holy,  and  o  for  its  short  quantity  in  home,  wholly — 
having  probably  the  New  England  vowel  in  view. 

0,  Italian  "  o  chitiso." 

418.  For  this  sound  we  will  use  ot  provisionally — but  preferring  the  closed  form  of  Mr. 
Pitman.  It  occurs  in  conca  (ca»/ca)  a  shell;  onda,  wave;  botte,  a  cask,  (but  botte  a  blow 
is  open ;)  no-io-so  vexatious.  It  is  long  in  aneora  (&/ca>ra)  yet,  and  short  in  ancora  (a^c<ura) 
anchor,  Ottobre  (o'tt<"br6)  October.  As  the  sound  is  an  O  approaching  to  U,  it  is  proba- 
bly the  one  which  those  have  in  view  who  assert  that  in  some  words,  as  Boma,  the  Ita- 
lians place  U.    Mr.  Ellis  formerly  used  9  for  it,  but  latterly  a  closed  to. 

419.  As  in  dialects  of  Latin,  some  wanted  0  and  some  U,  one  being  used  for  the  otheri 
it  is  hardly  possible  that  Latin  0  was  o  aperto.  If  known  to  Latin,  it  must  have  been 
o  chiuao,  but  more  probably  the  universal  0. 

y 

420.  i^ogren  uses  this  clvaracter*  for  the  most  evanescent  and  obscure  of  all  the  vowels 

*  Ossetisohe  Spraohlehre.  1844,  p.  17 — 19. 


ANALYTIC  ORTUOORArilY. 


U5 


rt, 


he  has  to  treat  of;  a  vowel  which  seemed  at  times  an  evanescent  e,  or  an  »',  or  even  a 
German  6  or  u,  or  a  Russian  bi,  or  something  between  these. 

w? 

421.  TJie  mme  author  uses  w  for  a  sound  between  0  and  U.  Ho  cites  Frencli  mni,  Swe- 
dish and  Danish  w>/,  and  German  grons,  iwth,  oben,  but  these  latter  are  English,  as  in  gross, 
note,  over.  He  has  probably  o  chlwio  in  view.  Ca8tr6n  (p.  7,  §  11,)  mentions  an  open 
Ostjak  n  which  approaches  o,  as  in  ud  or  od,  the  hand.  We  have  heard  such  a  sound  in 
the  Troquoi  word  for  ten — U^JE'Ll";  and  it  may  occur  in  the  Irish  (of  Munster)  mtJ  hu 
mi/  eye;  ciiidj  five.* 

U.  in  pool;  V  in  puU,  (uj,  m.u.u.)  ,.„. 

422.  These  two  vovoeU  are  distinct  in  quality,  and  have  the  same  variations  in  quantity. 
They  are  to  each  other  as  awe  is  to  odd,  and  they  require  distinct  characters.  These,  in 
the  ordinary  alphabet,  may  be  u,  u,  with  marks  of  quantity. 

423.  In  passing  through  the  series  A,  0,  U,  it  will  be  found  that  U  in  pool  is  labial  in  its 
character,  and  that  this  labiality  is  preserved  in  shortening  foo'l  to  /oo''lish,  whilst  full, 
fullish  have  very  little  aid  from  the  lips.  We  may  represent /oo?/oo/tVi  (often  a  medial,) 
by  f ul,  fulif. 

424.  If  we  compare  fool  with  a  word  like  fuel,  rule,  (avoiding  the  Belgian  diphthong 
tew,)  we  detect  in  it  (fyoo'l,  rule,)  a  closer  sound,  which,  when  long,  is  confused  with  U, 
as  in  fool,  rule,  meaning  by  the  latter  neither  ryule  nor  riwl,  but  rool,  with  a  narrow 
aperture.  This  closer  u  is  often  preceded  by  y  and  r^as  in  due  (=dju",)  dew,  stew,  riiin, 
rude,  where  it  is  rather  medial  than  long. 

425.  The  Latin  u  is  long  in  woo,  two,  too,  tour,  poor,  do,  who,  move,  prove,  groove,  lose, 
soothe,  boom,  tomb,  moon;  and  perhaps  brew,  crew,  threw,  true,  if  these  are  not  the  closer 
U  lengthened.  U  is  medial  in  boot,  shoot,  root,  troop,  (all  of  which  Walker  marks  long, 
like  move,)  goose,  loose,  moos,  droop,  stoop,  hoof,  proof,  tooth.  U  is  short  in  good,  wood, 
hook,  which  is  not  who  with  k  added,  as  Walker  would  have  it. 

426.  U  is  short  in  foot,  full,  pull,  could,  (and  if  the  same  aperture  is  preserved,  these  do 
not  lengthen  into  pool,  coo'd.)  In  the  following,  i/  precedes  the  short  vowel, — acute,  dis- 
pute, refute,  refutation.  U  is  medial  in  rude,  truth,  fruit,  brute,  and  long  in  fume  (fju'm,) 
amuse,  refuse,  bruise. 

427.  r/te  uoioeZo/yboZ  occurs  ZcMigr  in  the  Italian  piu  (pju;)  Saturno,  Mercuric;  tu,  ihou; 
in  the  German  pfuhl,  uhr,  fuhr,  buch,  and  medial  in  urtheil,  nur.     That  of  foot  occurs 

*  We  have  heard  an  Irish  vowel  in  loch  lake,  (sometimes  1b;b,)  which  seemed  to  lie  between  up  and  ope,  but 
the  o  without  labiality.  We  merely  call  attention  to  it  here,  and  to  Tschudi's  work — Die  kechua-Sprache,  (Vienna, 
185.S,)  which  contains  details  of  pronunciation,  but  which  we  have  not  now  within  reach. 


90 


ANALTTIO  OKTHOORAPHT. 


Jf': 

I 


I  ;'i 


t ' 


short  in  Italian  punto,  point;  and  in  German  nusz,  nutz,  muBter,  stumm,  stunde.  The 
French  ou  (in  pool)  is  long  in  foule,  and  short  in  courrier. 

428.  Ibr  the  wnod  pair  o/ pool,  pttll,  Lepsius,  Max  Miiller,  Ellis,  Rapp,  EichhofT,  Bopp, 
Hale,  Hart,  &c.,  use  u;  Comstock,  a  character  based  on  n,  and  u,  (perverting  u  to  tip;) 
Pitman  (formerly)  and  Graham  ui,  u ;  and  Bishop  Wilkins  «. 

420.  There  are  two  objections  to  m,  m, — it  ignores  '  u'  as  made  for  a  full  open  sound  (note, 
§  369,)  and  it  obscures  writing  and  italics  as  in  mmn  (moon)  for  mun.  This  use  of  ui  in 
Russian,  for  English  sh,  is  inconvenient,  as  in  writing  "  luumha,"  a  pine  cone. 

a 

430.  7%ere  ia  a  middle  series  of  vowels  between  those  of  the  throat  and  the  lip  oide  of 
the  scale,  and  akin  to  both.  Between  the  o  otobey  (as  being  closer  than  owe,  and  e  of  ebb,) 
we  place  the  close  French  eu  in  eux,  lieu.     It  is  marked  6  in  §  369. 

H 

431.  The  open  sound  o/  the  preceding  is  heard  in  the  French  oeQ,  beQrre,  netif;  of  which 

some  consider  de,  me,  k  the  short  quantity.  Both  this  and  the  preceding  are  made  with 
the  jaw  cavity  large,  and  the  lips  pursed.  Pantol6on  writes  but  one  French  eu,  making 
no  difference  for  quality  or  quantity,  in  which  he  is  not  alone. 

432.  German  has  an  allied  or  identic  sound,  long  in  schworen,  schon,  konig;  and  short 
in  mochte,  worter,  loachen.  To  the  writer,  there  seems  but  one  German  6,  that  of  French 
net^,  with  a  tendency  to  the  e  side  of  the  scale,  a.  But  Lepsius  refers  konig  to  the  closer 
of  the  two  French  sounds,  and  the  l^ord  Go-the  to  a  position  between  this  and  the  more 
open  soifnd  of  French  beurre.  If  this  sound  exists,  there  will  be  three  allied  characters 
wanting,  H  for  beurre,  (being  an  open  character  for  an  open  aperture;)  il  for  Gothe;  and 
a  for  konig  (a  close  character  for  a  close  aperture,)  the  letter  to  be  unmutilated  (h)  when 
the  varieties  are  not  discriminated. 

433.  The  first  or  moat  open  of  these  could  be  written  on  a  u  basis,  with  the  break  of  the 
left  side  towards  the  left.  Dr.  Lepsius  writes  the  vowel  of  konig  (?,)  with  the  mark  of 
length  above,  when  long;  that  of  Gothe  (o,  and  of  beurre  (2)  with  a  line  of  length  when 
long,  and  if  this  sound  were  to  occur  nasal  and  accented.  Its  letter,  the  doctor's  notation, 
would  be  5. 

434.  Rappi*  writes  the  closer  sound  ^  as  in  peiir,  leQr,  seul,  oeil;  and  the  open  one  o,  as 
in  je,  de,  se,  le;  and  9  (of  English  hut,  the  article  a,  &c.,)  in  the  French  final  of  noble,  &c., 
when  pronounced  in  poetry.     Thus  for  French  'redoutable'  he  writes  rodutdbh. 

*  PhysioWgie  der  Spraohe,  Vol.  III.,  1840,  p.  108. 


ANALTTIO  ORTnOOEAFUY. 


07 


Y,  y,  y,  (r,  u,)  Or.;  Dan.,  Swed.,  Y. 

435.  If  there  ia  any  dijffbrence  between  French  u  and  German  ii,  it  is  that  the  latter  has 
a  tendency  towards  I.  It  ia  long  in  the  French  buse,  vuc,  mur  (ripe,)  and  short  in  niur 
(a  wall,)  vu,  une,  fut.  It  is  long  in  German  iibcl,  giite,  natiirlich;  and  short  in  gliick, 
kuche,  kiissen.  We  are  unable  to  give  an  opinion  whether  the  Danish  and  Swedish  y, 
and  Belgian  u  are  exactly  identic  with  the  French  sound. 

486.  TJte  hiatoric  character  is  Y,  often  used  in  Greek  typography.  Max  Miiller  uses  u; 
Lepsius  the  same,  with  the  dots  below;  and  Comstock  Y, 

U 

437.  Dr.  Eapp  usee  this  character  (4, 114,)  for  a  vowel  between  6  and  u,  occurring  in 
the  German  of  Elsess  (Alsace,)  and  unknown  to  us.  i 

U,? 

438.  This  Utter  ia  uaed  by  Castren  (§  11,)  for  a  "close  u"  in  Samojedic  dialects. 
•         ■  U. 

439.  WeUh  u  (y,)  long  and  short,  a  distinct  vowel  according  to  Ellis,  and  made  "  with 
the  tongue  between  the  teeth." 

q- 

440.  The  Swedish  u  is  pinched,  and  is  between  9  and  it.  Gastrin  mentions  it  as  an  Ostjac 
sound.  In  the  ordinary  alphabet,  q  is  at  hand  for  it,  as  in  Islandic  oi^'a,  God.  a.  Mr. 
Pitman  has  a  reversed  u,  a  tailed  w,  and  several  other  forms  of  these  letters,  which  could 
be  distributed  as  required,  among  the  vowels  of  §§  437-40.    See  §§  409-22. 

441.  The  following  table  (§444)  is  compiled  from  Rapp  (2,  119,  140,  160,  152,  171, 
180;— 3, 161,  223,  265,  308,  312;— 4,  7,  111,  115, 118,  119, 127, 130,  134, 144,)  and  is 
in  his  notation,  t^  circumflex  indicating  length  and  not  quality;  e  being  the  vowel  of 
ihey,  and  a  of  there.  His  key  word  for  the  fiflh  column  is  *  broad,'  which  does  not  suit 
English,  the  vowel  being  awe  and  not  o;  but  as  it  suits  other  vowels,  it  is  not  altered. 

442.  Thia  table  ahowa  the  absurdity  of  what  is  falsely  called  etymologic  orthography,  and 
the  impossibility  of  giving  the  history  of  a  word  in  any  single  spelling.  It  shows  that  a 
phonetic  representation  of  the  various  phases  constitutes  the  etymology  and  distinguishes 
the  newer  from  the  older  forms,  and  that  in  using  the  present  alphabet,  LIF,  and  JIR, 
are  the  only  proper  representatives  of  leaf  and  year;  and  farther,  it  shows  that  the 
vowel  of  vein  has  no  more  right  to  an  a-character  than  o  or  i  have,  for  if  the  original  A 
became  E  in  Gothic,  it  equally  became  atoe  and  o  in  other  dialects. 

443.  Mchhoff'a  table  of  mutation  (Parallele  des  Langues,  p.  91,)  shows  a  similar  result, 
the  short  Sanscrit  A  being  represented  by  A,  e,  i,  o,  u,  in  Greek,  Latin,  Gothic,  German, 
Lithuanian,  Russian,  and  C^eltic. 


9$ 


ANALYTIO  ORTHOGRAFHT. 


idii 


i.rr 


Oriffinal, 

Gothic, 

..Islandic, 

Anglisb, 

Friesian, 

Old  Saxon,.. 

New  Saxon, 

Old  Suabian, 

English, 

..Danish, 
..Swedish, 

Belgian, 

Low  Saxon, 

Upper  Saxon,  .. 

Old  Upper  Ger., 

Old  Lower  Ger., 

German, 

Alsace, 

Suabian, 

id.  dialect, 

W.  Frankish, .... 

£.  Frankish, 

Bavarian, 

Swiss, 


444. 
house, 
t2 

« 

« 
« 

ou 

n 

uii 
oii 

au,9U 

(t 

au 

9U 

au 

« 


SCHEME  OF  I>-TEBMUTATION, 

good,      leaf, 


6 

u 
tt 
it 
u 
tt 
It 

no 

n 

6 

u 

tt 
tt 

uo 

A 

0 

n 

a 
ua 

n 

tt 

9U 

U9 
tt 


a 
tt 

PM 
ea 

d 
tt 

6 

ou 
i 

6 

tt 

tt 

ou 

6 

au 

eao 

au 
tt 

A 

a 
tt 

a 
d,au 


year, 

d 

i 

& 

tt 

d 
d 

A 

a 
t 

d 

d 
tt 

o 

a 

A 

a 
tt 

tt 

d 

ft 

d 

A 

O 

9U 

d 
tt 


broad, 


a 
tt 

ei 

o 

a 
& 
a 

i 

ei 

6 

i 
tt 

tt 

tt 

ft 

ei 

A 

e 

ai 
ft 


01 


thief, 
i 


ai 
a 

A 

a 

09 

d,ai 


m 
tt 

eo 
ia 
iu 
i 
ie 
I 
it 
j& 

I 

(( 

tt 

ie 

A 

e 

t 

ia 
tt 

A 
t 

tt 


%9 


wide. 

A 

t 

tt 

tt 
tt 
it 
tt 
it 
tt 

ei 

I 

tt 

ai 

91 

m 
A 

t 

•    It 

ai 

A  • 

91 

tt 

:    di . 

°    (( 
(.< 


«,9l 


INPEP8NDENT  VOWELS.  ^.'-     ' 

445.  In  using  ih^  Uowpijpe  to  direct  the  flame  of  a  lamp  upon  a  small  object,  as  in 
testing  minerals,  or  in  goldsmiths'  work,  a  continuous  blast  is  kept  up  by  filling  the 
cheeks  with  air,  without  interrupting  the  natural  breathing  through  the  nostrils;  that  is, 
the  air  may  pass  into  the  nostrils,  and  out  of  the  lips,  simultaneously.  To  effect  this, 
the  base  of  the  tongue  must  close  the  back  of  the  mouth  in  the  ng  position. 

446.  With  the  back  of  the  mouVi  closed  in  this  manner,  or  by  a  deeper  closure,  the  air 
within  the  mouth  is  entirely  cut  off  from  that  in  the  lungs;  yet  it  may  be  compressed 
and  forced  out  from  behind  a  p,  t,  cay,  position,  or  dilated  by  a  sucking  action  behind  a 


AKALTTIO  ORTHOGRAPmr. 


00 


'■,i'A 


^54{ 


d,  t,  it,  c,c?,  position,  and  caused  to  produce  a  sound  by  the  opening  of  the  consonant 
contact,  not  :vith  voice  or  breath,  but  by  a  resonance  which  some  may  consider  an 
'independent'  aspiration. 

447.  1/  an  inverted  aspirate  sign  is  prefixed  for  inspiration  or  suction,  p,e  will  indicate 
a  syllable  drawn  inwards.  Let  4  indicate  independence  from  the  lungs,  of  the  rowel  effect 
or  resonance,  before  the  character  of  which  it  is  placed,  when  p  |.,9  will  indicate  the  sound 
made  faintly  by  smokers  when  separating  the  lips  under  suction; — t|.,a^,  one  of  the  Hot- 
tentot clacks,  the  inverted  accentual  indicating  force; — t|.,l^  (or  with  Av,)  a  sound  made  to 
start  horses;— ^,hr  a  nasal  trilled  or  vibrant  inspiration,  or  snore; — p|.a  (the  air  expelled,) 
a  sound  described  to  us,  probably  Dacota,  for  in  Riggs'  Dictionary,  p  (also  t,  k,  c'=teA,) 
with  a  dot  below  "  has  a  click  sound,"  whence  the  word  for  elm  is  probably  pj-ae  (or  p.j.e, 
if  the  effect  is  deemed  aspirate.) 

448.  In  the  Nadaoo  (an  English  name,  An-a-dah-has  of  Schoolcraft,)  a  Texan  language, 
we  have  heard  such  a  sound  following  t,  with  an  effect  as  loud  as  spitting,  and  somewhat 
resembling  it,  as  in  cabat|.o^  (thread,)  where  the  resonance  is  modified  by  an  o  cavity; — 
n8'st.{.a^  (paper;) — tj-a^a^u^h  (tooth,)  with  final  h,  it  may  be  considered  a  dissyllable; — 
ha'vtj.0;  (wind;) — q  j.aas  (thigh,)  a  monosyllable,  the  vowel  of  medial  length.  There  is 
ah  English  click  sometimei:  heard,  indicative  of  impatience.  It  is  a  rapid  repetition  of  t{.,a.* 


CHAPTER  XV. 


I  in 
the 
i  is, 
his,   • 


air 
sed 
da 


THE    CONSONANTS. 

No  condition  is  more  necessary  for  the  success  of  a  projected  system  of  orthography  than  that  it  should  be  as  mueh  as 
possible  a  necessary  deduction  from  fixed  principles,  and  as  little  as  possible  a  matter  of  arbitrary  invention. . . .  Now, 
the  arbitrary  elements  of  a  reformed  orthography  should  be  as  few  as  possible;  since,  as  long  ds  they  are  arbitrarv,  they 
Xrill  vary  with  the  peculiar  views  of  the  innovator — and  as  one  innovator  will  rarely  give  up  his  own  details  for  tnose  of 
another,  there  is  no  means  of  injuring  uniformity  except  by  laying  down  preliminary  common  principles,  and  admitting 
Kkna  common  principle  of  reasoning  upon  them.— iVq/^  Latham,  Feb.  1849. 

449.  The  nature  of  the  consonanta  having  been  described  in  Chapter  8,  it  remains  to  give 
them  in  detail ;  and  in  adopting  the  Roman  alphabet  we  may  associate  each  sound  wit^ 
the  character  made  for  it,  or  indicate  certain  known  sounds  in  the  same  manner  that  one 
without  a  letter  would  be  indicated  analogically.  Premising  that  pA,  thj  cannot  be  used 
for  simple  sounds,  because  they  must  have  their  power  in  vphoid  and  pothook,  we  may  in- 

■i'  Dh  is  a  Bonnd  peoaliar  to  the  Oalla  luigaage — and  extremely  difficult  to  be  acquired,  the  d  being  followed 
by  a  JMfft  of  hiatos,  or  guttural  approaohiug  to  the  Arabic  ain. — Ch.  T.  Beke,  Bsq.  Proceed.  Pbilol.  Soo.  1846, 
vol.  2,  p.  89. 


I 


1   I 


I 


100 


analtho  obthoorapht. 


dicate  an  aspirate  of  o  by  '0,  and  of  cay  bj  Greek  x*  causing  a  discrepancy  which  the  use 
of  'c  (with  the  aspirate  mark  above)  would  obviate. 

450.  Sjogren  uses  an  h  formed  by  continuing  the  termination  down  and  towards  the 
left,  nearly  in  the  shape  of  o,  and  this  o  is  added  to  aspirate  any  lenis  phase.  Thus,  using 
the  Russian  alphabet,  F  is  gay,  and  the  o  mark  added  makes  it  a  sonant  aspirate ; — added 
to  n  it  forms  ^  and  to  the  stem  of  T,  ih,  but  the  last  is  not  correct,  because  t  and  ih  {9) 
belong  to  di£ferent  contacts.  The  lower  projection  of  K  similarly  curved  gives  %•  ^^i" 
mark  forms  part  of  the  character,  so  that  there  is  no  economy  of  types,  as  there  would  be 
in  using  the  Greek  asper  mark.  a.  Thia  and  the  allied  marks,  when  convenient  to  the 
printer,  or  when  types  are  specially  made,  should  be  placed  over  the  letter. 


LABIAL  COKSONANTS. 


§451. 


m 


V 


P   P  {^) 

b  'b  (w  ff)  m    V 


V.    v  -v. 


10      11 


p,  surd. 
B,  sonant. 


M 

u 


Of  these,  p,  b,  m,  have  their  English  power;  'p  is  preferred  to  Greek  p  (§119)  except  in 
script;  and  its  sonant  form  'b  to  its  proper  letter  (W,  §  127)  in  the  Roman  alphabet,  or 
to  the  Romanic  S  with  which  (or  with  a  b  with  the  stem  broken  towards  the  left)  it  may 
be  written.  This  c  is  to  have  the  centre  open,  as  distinguished  from  true  /3,  which  might 
be  used  in  the  modern  language  instead  of  (m.  Bohtlingk  assigns  both  f  and  ^  to  Ossetian, 
Grusinian,  and  Armenian.  'B  occurs  in  Ellenic  G  (sometimes  u,)  in  Spanish  h  between 
vowels,  and  in  German  (W,)  but  some  Germans  use  English  v  for  it;  German  v  and</ 
being  the  same  letter. 

452.  b~,  p~,  are  for  the  labial  trill — a  rapid  alternation  between  b  'b,  or  p  'p.  The  Jlat 
p,  t,  c,  have  been  mentioned  in  §§  181,  362-3. 

453.  We  cannot  hesitaie  (§  43)  to  restore  to  Latin  and  Anglish  Y  its  proper  power  (§§  106, 
112, 143-4,)  unless  we  doubt  the  ancient  and  modem  identity*  between  qyale  &c.,  and 
Italian  qtude,  (qvattro,  qiuintitai)  qvando,  aqva,  and  Spanish  eiMndo,  a,gua,  Italian  quando, 
acgua;  vidua  and  Anglish  vidva,  and  the  initial  of  toidow. 

454.  The  Laiin  *Y'  consonant  is  in  the  predicament  of  English  'to,'  most  scholars  know 
the  latter  through  its  German  power,  and  some  of  them  cannot  permit  themselves  to  be- 
lieve that  it  is  almost  a  vowel.  We  consequently  find  English  and  German  'to'  confounded, 
(as  in  the  alphabets  of  Matushik  and  S'unio',)  precisely  as  the  English  confound  their  'v' 

*  This  identity  ia  denied  in  the  Roman  Orthoepy  of  Prof.  J.  F.  Richardson,  who  tarns  QVAMOO  into  cando, 
and  wonld  rejeot  the  tables  in  §  228.  His  table  of  the  consonants  (p.  61,)  is  erroneous — he  gives  no  authority 
for  Z  being  d» —  and  he  is  silent  in  regard  to  m  final  and  n  adulterinum. 


ANALTTIO  0BTH06RAPHT. 


101 


with  Latin  'V;'  although,  in  each  case,  there  is  ample  material  for  determining  their  na- 
ture. 

455.  In  aligning  *V'  to  ita  proper  power,  we  are  giving  a  great  advantage  to  English 
over  many  other  languages,  where  the  sound  has  swerved  into  a  sonant  /;  and  in  do^ng 
so  we  follow  Eichhoff,  who  assigns  the  proper  power  to  Latin  '  V  and  uses  it  for  Sanscrit, 
as  in  Vast,  Latin  Vasto,  Eng.  >  waste  (=vest')  to  destroy ;  Sanscrit  Vrd  to  discern ;  Latin 
Video  to  perceive;  English  tJoU  and  e-md-ent,  where  wit,  -vid-  are  false  spellings,  wit  having 
the  right  sound  and  the  wrong  letter,  whilst  the  variation  of  sound  in  -vid-  has  not  been 
accompanied  by  a  change  in  spelling,  according  to  Dr.  Latham's  sixth  rule — ''  That  changes 
of  speech  be  followed  by  corresponding  changes  of  spelling." 

456.  Latin  V  has  a  surd  aspirate  in  English  wJi,  which  is  always  followed  by  V  way,  as 
in  when  =v  vcn,  which  is  not  "ven,  as  some  suppose,  nor  is  it  Jiwen,  as  hden  is  not  then.  A 
character  commencing  with  (')  would  be  suitable  for  print;  and  for  script,  a  v  with  a 
break  towards  the  left,  in  the  descending  stem.  Unfortunately,  this  sound  is  departing. 
We  heard  wig  for  whig,  the  first  time  in  July,  1848,  and  not  unfrequently  since.  When 
this  confusion  is  established  between  when  wen;  where  were;  which  witch;  wet  whet; 
whey  way;  wheel  weal;  the  language  will  have  ceased  to  be  a  refined  one.*  The  sound 
probably  belongs  to  Welsh,  provincial  Danish,  and  ancient  Greek. 

457.  "V  occurs  in  several  Vesperian  languages,  and  the  whistle  which  Duponceau  attri- 
butes to  the  Ifnape  (Delaware)  language,  is  this  tound,  as  in  "vte  (heart,  nde,  my  heart,) 
"vtehim  (strawberries,f)  with  flat^.    In  the  Wyandot  (vD'ndbt,)  salad* vu    (it  burrows,) 
it  occurs  before  a  whispered  vowel.    Compare  Penobscot  nc^cVde^'s  (six;''vtauac  (ear;) 
vtauaGofl  (ears.) 

458.  V^  a  nasal  English  to,  occurs  in  the  Penobscot  word  for  seven, — to'mba.'V.B^s.  It 
is  No.  1  of  the  Scheme,  §  193.     The  labial  coalescent  (§  451,  No.  11,)  is  nasal  in  Wyandot) 


asm 


ne>£ta>-' 
Hie  pine 


au'fr6,h,a,v, 
all  unnter 


tfii  >  iGVaro^t. 
is  green. 


LABIODENTALS. 

F,  f;  E,  E,  (v,)  English  v. 
459.  Saunda  formed  by  {he  contact  of  the  lower  lip  and  upper  teeth,  of  which  F  is  the 

*  "Not  neoesaarily.  ....  In  the  aontb  of  England  so  few  people  say  wheUf  whig,  that  this  is  the  harsh  and 

unrefined,  the  provincial  pronunciation The  sound  wh  is  a  dialectic  pronunciation  of  khm  in  Welsh ;  and, 

indeed,  it  would  appear  that  wh  in  English  came  from  khw  through  kw." — EUi»  MS.  note. 

f  A  heart-shaped  fruit,  but  in  Wyandot  they  are  called  itais,  from  their  bright  appearanco  among  the  foliage. 
li 


!:!! 


ii 


102 


ANALTTIO  OSTHOORAFHT. 


best  known.  The  v  of  English,  French,  Spanish,  &c.,  not  being  a  Sanscrit,  Greek,  Latiq, 
or  normal  German  sound,  it  was  not  supplied  with  a  character  in  the  Latin  alphabet. 
Being  a  cognate  of  F,  we  assign  E  to  it,  of  which  the  written  form  is  v  with  a  break  to- 
wards the  right,  in  the  middle  of  the  descending  stem.  The  form  may  be  seen  at  Rome 
on  the  tomb  of  Caius  Foblicus  Bibulus,  in  the  abbreviation  T  E*. 

460.  The  Utter  y  (and  'fr,  found  in  some  printing  offices,)  is  not  recommended,  because 
it  is  scarcely  distinct  enough,  and  it  does  not  differ  sufficiently  from  Latin  V,  whilst  our 
pair  associates  well  with  p,  b,  &c.  (§  70,)  and  if  English  v  has  an  affinity  with  Latin  V 
way,  as  in  yaleo,  valid,  toell;  yulgus,  nbXxot:,  vulgar, ^Ik,  it  has  even  more  with  h  and  f, 
(§267)  as  in  prolate,  proq^,  prove.;  s-criie,  s-cra/>e,  grave,  gra/t,  graphic;  ro6,  bereave, 
bere/t. 

461.  Should  labio-dentdl  p,  b,  m,  occur,  they  can  be  formed  out  of  these  characters  with 
the  aid  of  the  marks  in  §193.  Most  authors  of  ethnic  or  new  alphabets  use  v,  and  many 
use  w  with  their  English  power,  the  earlier  ones  having  done  so  thoughtlessly,  and  the 
later  ones  to  preserve  uniformity — although  uniformity  from  a  false  basis  is  not  desirable. 
Mr.  Ellis's  recommendation  of  'w'  with  its  Grerman  power,  and  va  for  English  w,  are  the 
least  objectionable — but  he  uses  v  with  its  English  power. 

4G2.  There  is  no  certainty  in  the  accounts  we  have  of  English  v  and  German  to  occurring 
in  exotic  languages,  for  when  either  is  mentioned,  we  have  no  proof  that  the  observer 
knew  the  difference.  For  example,  although  the  modern  Greeks  asserted  in  the  most  un- 
qualified manner  the  identity  of  their  f  with  English  v,^hey  were  in  error,  and  it  has  been 
but  a  few  years  since  this  question  was  settled.  In  a  similar  manner,  the  Spanish  gram- 
marians are  still  mystified  about  their  b  and  v. 

463.  The  sonant  labial  trill  is  used  in  Germany  to  stop  horses,  and  we  have  known  a 
child  who  emphasised  the  word  push  by  trilling  the  p  when  desirous  of  being  pushed  to 
the  table  after  having  climbed  into  his  chair. 

LINGUI-DENTALS. 

1, 7,  {0,  &,)  in  thin.    Q,  in  </ten. 

464.  These  sounds  are  produced  by  placing  the  point  of  the  tongue  between  the  teeth, 
and  they  are  aspirate  in  their  nature.  0,  d,  ^,  is  the  Greek  character  for  the  surd  phase, 
and  ^,  S,  the  modem  Greek  sonant.  They  occur  ii^  Albanian,  as  in  aem  (a  tooth;)  leva. 
(I  will  say — exactly  English  thunC;)  maVon  (to  say,)  meTbn  in  some  dialects;  mc-  being 
the  infinitive  sign,  as  in  mcbo.  (to  make,)  vaetme  (to  go,)  medartune  (to  love,)  dartiier, 
(lover.)     Should  a  liquid  occur,  it  will  be  a  kind  of  I  (j.) 

466.  They  cannot  be  represented  by  't,  'd,  because  they  are  not  formed  on  a  <  basis. 


ANALTTIC  ORTHOORAPBT. 


103 


§56.  't  means  an  aspirate  made  at  the  t  point,  behind  the  teeth,  and  indicates  a  Kound 
between  th  and  e.  » 

466.  Throttghout  thia  eaaay  the  lips  are  supposed  to  be  towards  the  left,  and  the  throat 
towards  the  rigJit.  The  characters  i,  d,  (j,)  therefore,  are  supposed  to  be  turned  towards 
the  lips. 

467.  The  surd  sound  is  attributed  to  Spanish  z,  and  to  c  before  i,  e;  and  the  sonant  to 
d  between  vowels,  as  in  aalvdado;  but  the  sounds  are  not  quite  those  of  Greek  and 
English.  The  Anglish  and  old  Nordish  character  for  the  surd  sound  is  ^  and  for  the 
sonant  )S,  both  of  which  are  freely  used  in  illustration  by  the  German  philologists,  as 
Grimm  and  Bapp.  a.  T,  D,  if  made  between  the  teeth,  would  be  'i  ('^,)  'a  deprived  of 
aspiration. 

468.  The  fourth  Arabic  letter  has  the  power  of  9-  (Volney,  Ellis,  S'uiiic',)  and  the  ninth 
that  of  a,  both  as  heard  by  us,  but  they  are  changed  in  different  dialects;  and  in 
Algerian  they  are  confounded  with  t,  d  {Paulmier.)  Volney's  notation  is  respectively  B 
and  a  kind  of  3;  Richardson  uses  s,  z;  S^unic',  t,  d;  ^^^  Miiller,  th,  dh;  Lepsius,  6,  $'; 
Ellis,  a  pair  of  peculiar  characters;  Comstock,  d,  b;  Pitman  and  Graham,  a  well-formed 
pair,  based  upon  t,  d,  with  which  they  harmonise,  and  which  should  be  adopted.  We 
prefer  d-  to  $,  as  a  script  form.  Our  characters  are  adapted  to  the  common  alphabet,  and 
the  Greek  furnishes  7. 


469. 


t 

d 

1 

2 


I  !  1,  h 
4 

3       6     6       7 


DENTALS. 

-   h   -   8urd. 
n    h.   I  sonant. 


8 


9 
10 


U 


4G9a.  T,  D,  L,  N,  are  fanned  by  a  light  contact  of  the  tip  of  the  tongue  at  or  near  the 
base  of  the  upper  teeth.  The  Spanish  t,  d,  are  said  to  differ  in  quality  by  having  the 
tongue  laid  against  the  upper  teeth,  thus  removing  the  contact  towards  the  lips. 

470.  T,  D,  have  no  aspirate  forms,  (unless  s,  z  are  so  considered,)  but  we  can  force 
breath  past  the  t  position,  and  thus  form  (V)  a  kind  of  s  or  d-,  just  as  we  can  deprive  «  of 
aspiration  and  make  it  (a)  a  kind  of  posterior  t. 

471.  Marks  are  required  for  consonants  made  nearer  the  lips  and  throat,  and  to  be 
placed  below  or  (less  properly)  after  the  letter.  Let  the  Hebrew  point  (t)  represent  the 
normal  position  of  a  consonant,  then  (t)  the  horizontal  line  directed  towa'  ds  the  lips,  or 
(r)  throat,  will  mark  the  distinction  when  required.    §466. 

472.  The  t,  d,  in  tsh,  dzh,  are  thus  drawn  back  by  the  following  palatal,  and  in  fact. 


104 


ANALYTIC  ORTIIOGRAWIY. 


they  may  be  considered  the  lenis  forms  of  s,  z;  and  if  they  are  auch,  then  trf  for  teh  is 
less  philosophic  than  'sr,  which,  however,  interferes  with  our  ordinary  habits  of  notation. 

478.  Those  who  would  write  this  t*ih  with  one  character,  have  not  provided  for  cases 
where  the  t  may  be  adapted  to  the  eh  of  another  word  (Rule  4,  §69,)  as  in — a<  «Aore;  or 
where  an  antecedent  t,  d,  may  keep  the  t  of  tsh  from  sliding  back,  as  in — tha<  c/uld, — h»d 
choice,  or  the  reversal  of  tsh  in  hush't,  viatch't,  whatever  this  final  t  may  be. 

474.  his  the  surd  Welsh  aspirate  '11,'  which  we  think  occurs  sonant  in  Irish,  where  it 
is  considered  to  be  a  kind  of  d.  We  have  beard  the  Welsh  II  in  Creek,  Choctaw,  and 
Cherokee. 

475.  The  following  are  examples  from  the  musical  Creek  (an  English  name,)  more  cor- 
rectly— mascoci  (c  as  h,)  in  which  the  name  of  the  "  large  river,"  Withlacoochee,  and 
"  figured  rock  river"  Chattahoochee,  are  respectively — 

u^j^llacD'tsv,  tsB"'tu"'hu'tsr; 
the  former  from  u'jva  (water,)  and  ll&c!  (large,) .  Uacimahl  (larger,)  llaci'a  (largest.)     All 
the  vowels  are  short,  and  dotted  j  is  the  guttural  coalescent. 

476.  We  are  dovhtful  whether  the  French  7,  r,  of  simple,  maitre,  are  whispered  (si^p'l, 
met  r ,)  or  surd  aspirate,  but  we  incline  to  the  former.  Most  French  orthoepists  do  not 
mention  this  phase. 

477.  Castren  uses  an  M'  character  with  the  appendage  of  *r'  for  an  intermediate  sound 
in  Samojedic,  which  has  more  of  the  (smooth?)  r  than  I,  although  both  are  heard  simul- 
taneously. In  the  absence  of  the  projper  type,  it  may  be  represented  by  a  mutilated  *h,' 
as  in  febre  (half) 

478.  The  Polish  I  is  indicated  by  T  with  a  line  through  it  in  the  direction  of  the  acute 
accentual.  We  judge  that  it  belongs  to  the  Arabic  Unguals,  and  mark  it  (IJ  with  a  de- 
scending semicircle,  cut  from  a  comma  point,  or  from  an  inverted  (q)  degree  mark. 

479.  There  is  in  Sanscrit  a  kind  of  I  which  is  regarded  as  a  (long  and  short)  vowel,  and 
if  we  touch  the  palate  lightly  and  try  to  pronounce  A,  there  is  so  little  interruption  that 
the  sound  seems  a  vowel  until  the  removal  of  the  tongue  (the  vocality  continuing) 
exhibits  the  I  quality. 

480.  The  L  is  less  interrupted  with  open  vowels,  as  in  Latin  ala  (a  wing,)  than  with 
close  ones,  as  in  eely,  and  the  two  can  be  discriminated  when  detached.  The  Sanscrit 
sound  may  have  been  still  less  interrupted,  as  if  we  were  to  pronounce  ell  without  bring- 
ing the  tongue  in  contact. 

481.  Eichhoff  figures  the  Sanscrit  letter  by  Ai  (with  a  similarly  formed  B,  also  used  in 
astronomic  typography  for  right  a,acension,)  but  with  the  small  letters  he  follows  Bopp 
in  placing  a  dot  bdow.    Ellis  uses  '1,  and  Lepsius  I  with  a  circle  below,  which  we  adopt. 


ANALTTIO  ORTHOGRAPHT. 


105 


IS 


482.  Jfoaj  Muller  refers  (his  SanKrit  vowel  7  to  I  \n  friendly  (and  Eiohhoff  says  the  >  is 
common  in  English,  meaning  probably  the  smooth  r  in  far.)  But  the  -ly  in  friendly  is 
the  li-  of  live  (transposed  in  ill,)  it  is  the  -ley  of  medley,  and  if  this  word  is  pronounced 
with  the  final  vowel  suppressed,  no  ear  can  distinguish  the  then  final  I  from  that  of 
meddle  (smedl,)  or  the  I  in  bulb  from  that  of  the  transposed  bubl,  the  difference  between 
medley  and  medl'y  being  in  the  diaeresised  vowel,  (§  169.)  And  the  question  may  be 
asked — If  the  four  English  sonants  ^medl'  do  not  spell  meddle,  what  do  they  spell? 

483.  ^  surd  afflate  (§  195,  469',)  we  have  heard  in  Cherokee  (§  624'°,)  and  a  forcible 
sonant  form  (§  469*°,)  in  Albanian,  as  in  the  word  hun  (noae),  of  which  it  may  be  a 
metathesis. 

INDISTINCTNESS. 

484.  A  dot  below  a  letter  should  not  be  used  for  any  important  phase  of  speech,  for  as  the 
least  mark,  it  should  indicate  the  slightest  sound,  whether  vowel  or  consonant.  The  Abb^ 
Proyart,  in  his  History  of  Loango,  1776,  says  of  the  language — "  There  are  many  words 
which  begin  with  m,  n,  as  in  mFouka,  nGoio,  but  these  letters  are  pronounced  so  slightly, 
that  they  who  are  strangers  to  the  language  would  pronounce  after  them  Fouka,  Goio." 
"  Some  Dakotas,  in  some  instances,  introduce  a  slight  b  sound  before  m,  and  also  a  (2  sound 
before  n."  (These  are  examples  of  eduction.)  "  The  letter  n  is  hardly  heard,  and  often 
not  at  all  in  the  pronunciation  of  manji,  [Fr.  j,]  in  all  the  words  that  begin  with  it." — 
Baraga,  Otchipwe  Dictionary,  p.  216. 

485.  We  have  heard  this  n  in  Wyandot,  (=  vD'ndb't,)  where  the  speaker  denied  its 
existence,  and  would  not  have  written  it,  had  the  language  been  a  written  (we.  It  occurs 
in  ndd'cc  (ndb^c,  four,)  and  in  the  name  of  the  town  sca-nd^hte'ti'  (beyond  the  pines,) 
Skenectady  in  New  York — spelt  echenectady,  the  sch  being  due  to  the  Dutch.  The  h  is 
the  ordinary  one,  and  a  slight  aspirate  closes  the  word.  The  accent  and  the  last  three 
vowels  are  traditionally  correct,  to  remain  so  until  some  phonetician  fancies  that  the  third 
syllable  should  have  the  vowel  of /u<,  as  malady  is  supposed  to  have  the  vowel  of  the  first 
syllable  repeated  in  the  second. 

486.  A  slight  n  (not  ng)  occurs  before  gay  in  the  Wyandot— 

unolxat*         ihe'f        da'nJ,o,'J,ii>'. 
'  nuta  *  he-eaie  ^  tke-bear. 

nJ^o/jio'  bear;  (in  Cherokee,  jane/.)     Here  medial  quantity  is  marked  with  (*).    The 
r  is  smooth,  and  >>  (§  568)  is  the  Arabic  hamza. 

ARABIC  UNGUALS. 

487.  Of  the  Arabic  Unguals  Lepsius  says — "  In  their  formation,  the  breadth  of  the  tongue 


ANALTTIO  ORTHOORAPHT. 

either  touches  or  approaches  the  whole  anterior  space  of  the  hard  palate  as  far  as  the 
teeth,  its  tip  being  turned  below."  We  have  heard  and  pronounced  these  sounds  casually, 
but  not  with  the  tip  of  the  tongue  turned  down.  Ellis  (Essentials,  p.  54,)  says — "  The 
tip  of  the  tongue  being  brought  against  tJie  back  of  the  upper  gums  tightly,  forms  t,  and 
loosely,  forms  d."*  Here  we  think  that  the  only  difference  between  the  t  and  d  is  the 
sonancy  of  the  latter. 

488.  The  Arabia  letters  of  this  phase  are  the  following,  to  which  we  add  our  marks  for 
lenis  and  aspirate,  sonant  and  surd.  Paulmier's  is  Algerian,  and  Volney's  characters  are 
cut  with  peculiar  hooks,  on  the  basis  here  indicated. 


Smith  &  Robinson, 

t 

s 

d 

z 

Lepsius, 

i 

8 

4 

z 

Ellis, 

T 

t 

D 

J 

Max  Miiller, 

T 

Z 

? 

? 

Paulmier, 

t' 

B' 

d' 

2' 

Volney, 

t 

~  d 

8 

8 

Richardson, 

t 

9 

.1 
Z 

n 

z 

S^unic', 

't 

'i 

'd 

z 

489.  All  the  Arabia  forma  (as  J, ,  t,)  have  in  common  a  (,)  vertical  curve  on  the  right, 
which  we  propose  as  being  suggestive,  and  as  more  appropriate  than  the  dot.  Lepsius 
(Alphabet,  p.  46,)  adds  a  (theoretic?)  n  to  the  series,  and  we  are  inclined  to  place  the 
Polish  barred  I  here.  (§  478.)     This  would  give  the  series — 

t,  Sj  d,  3,  n,  1,. 

490.  The  Ihlieh  s',  (and  z^  although  described  as  a  mouill^  a,  (z,)  is  perhaps  near  the 
*  s,ad.'  Vater  (Gramm.  Poln.  1807,)  describes  the  Polish  sound  as  between  (German) 
aaj  and  each;  and  Bishop  Pigneaux  uses  x  for  a  sound  between  a  and  ah.-f  We  have  heard 
such  a  one  in  the  Waco  {z=  Veco)  of  Texas  which  we  will  mark  provisionally  with  o,  (or 
if  sonant — d)  as  in  iscveto  (five,)  a  word  derived  from  that  for  hand,  as  in  Lenape  and 
Hebrew.  We  attribute  the  same  sound  to  the  Chinese  of  Canton  (cvoAof,)  where  the 
word  for  ten  is  oep'. 

*  "  The  Boand  differs  very  slightly  if  at  all  in  the  two  pronunciations.  The  tongae  is  certainly  not  contracted 
and  hard,  when  the  tip  is  brought  forward,  but  wide  and  soft.  .  .  .  The  Polish  Hs  to  lingual  t,  aa  lia  to  t." — 
EUis  MS.  note. 

f  "  Ita  littera  x  etsi  sola  indicat  unam  consonantem  oujus  sonus  medium  tenet  inter  litteras  «  et  ch  Qallorum 
et  xa,  xd,  etc.  proferunter  modo  dulciori  quam  apud  Gallos  et  etiam  modo  molliori  quam  «c  apud  Italoi." — ^Dict. 
Anamitico-Latinum.    Serampore,  1838. 


ANALTTIO  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


107 


SANSCRIT  CEREBRALS. 

491.  These  are  thus  described  by  Wilkins  (Gramm.  1808,) — "This  series  of  consonants 
is  produced  by  turning  and  applying  the  tip  of  the  tongue  far  back  against  the  palate; 
producing  a  hollow  sound,  as  if  proceeding  from  the  head."  Lepsius  and  Ellis  add  the 
common  Sanscrit  r  of  other  authors.  Wilkins  says  that  in  Bengal  the  d  is  "pronounced 
like  a  very  obtuse  r."  See  §199.  We  will  assume  that  the  Sanscrit  r  is  a  common 
trilled  r,  and  that  the  Bengali  sound  is  a  trilled  cerebral  (not  d  but)  r,  and  to  be  so 
written.  Eichhoff  (p.  80)  excludes  the  I  as  fictitious;  Wilkins  makes  it  the  Welsh  IL 
Eichhoff  uses  his  dotted  l  for  a  Birman  sound,  which  others  consider  Polish  I. 


492. 

Lepsius, 

t 

4 

n 

S 

z 

r 

/ 

t 

4 

Ellis, 

to 

dc 

nc 

fc 

JC 

re 

Ic 

ten 

dcH 

Miiller, 

t 

d 

n 

sh 

r 

I 

th 

dh 

Bopp, 

t 

4 

n 

•« 

r 

t. 

• 

Eichhoff, 

T 

p 

N 

s 

R 

L 

TH 

DH 

493.  Most  of  the  Sanscrit  forms  have  a  horizontal  curve  below  (J)  by  which  we  propose 
to  denote  them,  placing  it  below  or  after  the  base  letter,  as  in — 

t„    d„    n^    8^    t„h    d^h 

494.  Another  mode  is  to  use  the  small  italic  capitals,  r.AJv,/^  &c., — and  Bengali  s,  which 
would  represent  the  point  of  contact  as  removed  towards  the  throat.  §471.  In  Ellis's 
notation,  'o'  is  a  diacrit,  <k'  being  used  for  the  cay  power. 


SIOMALS. 


8,  3,  r,  r,  X,  X 

1      2      8      4      t      e 


»  r,  r»  r, 


8       9      10 


495.  The  affinity  of  the  aspirates  of  seize  is  rather  with  the  dentals  than  the  palatals, 
with  which  (§  158)  they  are  often  classed.  Most  authors  represent  them  by  a,  z,  the  latter 
being  a  perversion  to  which  we  are  exceedingly  averse.  Bopp  uses  ^  for  English  dz^ 
which  is  also  wrong.  Although  we  do  not  approve  of  any  double  letters,  z  may  be  wanted 
for  Russian  zd,  a  power  which  is  constantly  before  us  in  Greek,  aQ.d  perhaps  in  Hebrew. 
{Eioald.)  Compare  o^oc  and  Aeolic  u^do^ ;  Hormuz  and  Hormuzd ;  Oromazes  or  Oromasdes ; 
Ezra-s  or  Esdra-s.  The  use  of  English  z  would  tend  to  destroy  the  etymologic  value  of 
every  word  (like  'ozone')  transliterated  with  it  from  Greek,  whilst  a  new  character  would 
indicate  a  new  sound  ('oaon')  in  a  corrupted  or  naturalised  form.  This  objection  would 
be  weakened  if  Greek  z  were  transliterated  with  zd,  but  we  fear  that  very  few  would  use 
forms  like  ozdon,  or  horiadon. 

496.  The  English  or  French  z  is  unrecognised  in  Greek,  Latin,  and  Spanish,  and  it 


m 


ANALTTIO  ORTHOQRAPBT. 


therefore  requires  a  new  or  modified  letter.  We  at  first  employed  a  ending  in  a  comma 
point  to  simulate  c,  a,  but  this  degenerated  into  a  character  like  the  Russian  form  ( 3 ) 
which  we  adopt,  using  the  numeral  8  until  the  proper  type  (a  reversed  c,)  is  cut. 

497.  The  character  *z'  is  hardly  known  as  the  sonant  of  s  (out  of  which  it  has  mostly 
arisen,)  except  in  some  of  the  Slavonic  languages,  and  it  is  not  recognised  as  the  proper 
character  in  French,  English,  Italian,  or  German.  In  the  two  latter  it  is  always 
expressed  by  «,  and  in  the  two  former,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  as  in  ro«e,  mi«ery, 
positive.  Even  in  common  English,  it  is  disliked,  a  being  preferred  in  words  like  analyse, 
criticise,  &c.,  and  were  it  introduced,  it  would  falsify  etymology  throughout,  not  excepting 
words  like  zeal  and  ?u>rizon. 

498.  Lepsivs  ry'ecta  (he  Emianic  Cay  on  account  of  his  third  rule,  which  virtually 
rejects  pronounced  and  etymologic  Latin,  and  tends  to  render  the  barbarisms  in  it 
permanent.  Yet,  if  he  rejects  Cay  on  account  of  its  many  powers,  it  had  at  least  its 
correct  power  in  several  important  living  languages,  whilst  z  has  its  correct  power  in  no 
modern  language,  and  its  perversions  are  quite  numerous,  a.  Its  powers  are,  1.  Ancient 
Greek,  as  English  zd;  2.  Italian  dz  (and  ta;)  3.  German  is;  4.  English  in  azure;  6.  as  « 
in  Hungarian  and  Danish;  6.  French;  7.  Spanish;  8.  Middle  high  German;  9.  Scotch, 
as  in  Dalzel  or  Dalyel,  where  it  is  derived  from  6  through  the  Anglish  s. 

499.  Bopp  uaea  s  (§484,)  for  French,  Polish,  and  English  z,  for  which  's'  and  our  surd 
mark  might  be  used,  but  the  space  above  may  be  wanted  for  marks  of  quantity.  Most 
authors  use  z  for  it. 

500.  The  Qreek  and  Latin  R  was  trilled,  as  described  by  the  ancients,  and  this  accords 
with  European  practice.  The  letter  'r'  therefore  means  this  sound — however  convenient 
the  addition  of  a  sign  of  trill  (")  might  be  found.  Rule  5,  §  63.  We  have  heard  trilled  r 
in  Albanian,  Armenian  (in  part,)  Arabic,  Chaldee,  Ellenic,  Ulyrian,  Wallachian,  Hunga- 
rian, Russian,  Catalonian,  Turkish  (in  part,)  Islandic,  Hindustanee,  Bengalee,  Tamil,  and 
other  languages,  in  the  pronunciation  of  natives. 

501.  The  trilled  r  is  assigned  to  English  as  an  initial,  although  many  people  with  an 
English  vernacular  cannot  pronounce  it.  Dr.  James  Rush  would  have  the  trill  reduced 
in  English  to  a  single  tap  of  the  tongue  against  the  palate.  This  we  indicate  by  tp  with 
a  dot  above. 

501a.  The  Spaniah  (South  American)  r  in  pcrro  (dog)  as  distinguished  from  the 
common  trilled  r  of  pero  (but,)  seems  to  be  untrilled,  and  to  have  the  tongue  pressed 
flatly,  somewhat  as  in  English  z,  and  doubled,  as  in  more-reat.  It  may  have  arisen  from 
an  attempt  to  yotacise  r.  We  mark  it  x  (or  if  trilled,  r,)  with  a  line  below^  in  case  it  is 
distinct  from  the  next.    §  502. 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


109 


602.  Armenian  and  Turkish  have  a  smooth  (i.  e.,  an  untrillcd)  tactual  r,  much  like  the 
Spanish  rr,  if  not^the  same,  and  with  that,  requiring  farther  investigation  and  comparison. 
Our  impression  is,  that  this  oriental  r  may  belong  to  the  series  of  the  Arabic  Unguals,  in 
which  case  its  letter  would  be  r„  as  in  Turkish  (with  Latin  letters)  jlr.mi  (twenty-one,) 
whilst  Turkish  t^rmeo  (to  give)  has  the  ordinary  or  trilled  r. 

503.  English  smooth  r,  in  curry,  acre  (a-cr,)  begr,  grey,  curt,  is  formed  by  much  less 
contact  than  the  European  and  Asiatic  r  requires.  It  is  the  true  liquid  of  the  s  contact, 
and  allied  to  the  vowel  (e)  in  tip,  a,  character  to  be  formed  provisionally  from  italic  x. 
Ellis  writes  it  i. 

504.  The  Sanscrit  vofwel  r,  long  and  short, — written  by  Lepsius  with  /•  and  a  circle 
below,  and  'r  by  Ellis,  should  probably  be  figured  on  this  basis. 

505.  A  more  open,  smooth  r,  is  found  in  cur,  fur,  far,  more,  which  may  bo  marked  in 
Ellis's  mode,  with  an  r  having  the  stem  continued  down  to  the  length  of  '1;' — or  with  (r) 
Anglish  8.    We  use  the  latter  in  our  examples. 

506.  Mr,  Ellis  regards  *fur'  as  /and  this  open  r,  without  a  vowel  between,  and 
Kneeland  had  a  character  for  nr.  We  regard /ur  as  having  the  open  vowel  v  (with  which 
the  consonant  is  allied,)  short,  the  quantity  being  confined  to  the  consonant  (/ur=fu''r',) 
and  the  tongue  moving  from  the  vowel  to  the  consonant  position. 

507.  The  same  open  consonant  occurs  in  arm,  worm,  turn,  ore;  and  although,  for  a 
particular  purpose  we  have  cited  arm  as  long  (§93,)  it  contains  a  short  vowel  (aVm)  and 
long  or  medial  consonant. 

508.  Jf  voe  write  'rn  for  urn,  and  fr,  or  fR,  for /ur,  we  certainly  cannot  represent  far, 
four,  in  the  same  manner.  Moreover,  we  may  dissyllabise  pr-ay  on  a  trilled  or  a  close  r, 
and  monosyllabise  it  p'ray  with  the  most  open. 

509.  At  one  time  the  discussion  of  the  English  letters  led  to  a  curious  result.  When 
the  difference  between  the  open  r  of  tarry  (from  tar)  and  the  close  one  of  the  verb  tarry, 
was  ascertained,  an  identity  of  vowel  and  of  consonant  was  represented, — a  greater  error 
than  to  spell  more  and  moor,  fairy  and  ferry  alike,  or  prea-d  for  preat. 

510.  The  Welsh  surd  aspirate  rh  ("r)  may  be  the  smooth  element.  We  do  not  remember  its 
character  upon  this  point.  The  French  -tre,  -pre,  is  trilled,  and  perhaps  rather  whispered 
than  aspirate. 

511.  The  Polish  rz,  Bohemian  f,  is  a  trilled  (and  as  we  believe)  aspirate  r  (sonant  and 
surd)  made  simultaneously  with  zh  (j)  or  sh  (r.)  See  Ellis,  Essentials,  p.  50.  One  hypo- 
thesis has  been  given  in  §  200,  another  presents  itself  in  the  probability  that  it  has  arisen 
from  an  attempt  to  yotacise  r,  yotacism  being  common  in  the  Slavonic  languages.     §  519. 

15  , 


no 


ANALYTIC  ORTIIOGRAPUr. 


612.  Lepaim  rvprenmla  Polish  rz  by  r',  Ellis,  by  <j'  with  the  appendage  or  projection  of 
'r'  an  excellent  character,  to  which  the  surd  mark  (')  might  be  added  when  necessary. 
We  propose,  for  ordinary  typo  "r,,  'r,,  for  sonant  and  surd,  to  the  latter  of  which  we  think 
Mr.  Ellis's  key  word  przez  (==  p>,e  3 ,)  belongs,  owing  to  the  influence  of  the  surd  p.  If 
there  is  no  aspiration,  its  mark  must  be  supprest. 

513.  Tliere  is  no  guttural  r,  all  the  foregoing  being  made  strictly  in  the  anterior  part  of 
the  mouth.  But  in  dialectic  German  and  French  trilled  r  is  replaced  (by  otosis)  with  a 
vibrant  guttural,  which  is  as  far  from  r  as  German  ch  is  from  «. 

PALATALS. 

f ,  in  potion.         y,  in  nat^ur.        tf,  in  etch. 
J,  in  brazter.        3 ,  in  soldter.         dj,  in  edge. 

614.  Every  coimderation,  philosophic  and  practic,  requires  that  English  ah  (r)  and  French 
j  (j)  should  have  distinct  characters,  and  that  these  sounds  should  riot  be  considered  as 
having  an  aspirate  or  other  aflinity  with  «,  z.  §  68.  Our  characters  are  as  distinct  as  '  b, 
d,'  and  they  have  not  been  chosen  that  they  may  recall  Latin  S,  J.  Moreover,  were  it 
necessary  to  use  a  pointed  '  s '  either  for  r  or  &,  we  would  prefer  it  for  the  latter,  as  less 
likely  to  outrage  affinities.  The  character  *  f  was  proposed  by  Volney  in  1818,  'j'  by 
Ellis  in  1866,  and  both  were  used  by  us  in  ISdO.*" 

615.  The  foiloxoing  are  some  0/ the  forma  which  have  been  proposed  for  r,  j. 


Bopp 

« 

I 
< 

Lepsius 

a 

w 

z 

S'ufiic' 

8' 

z' 

Riggs 

* 

8 

z' 

Max  MuUer 

a 

z 

Rapp 

ah 

fh 

Eichho£f  1836 

9 

J 

Hale  1846 

f 

• 

3 

Comstock  1846 

c 

J 

Ellis 

r 

J 

Longley 

« 

3 

Parkhurst 

« 

(( 

Pitman  1844 

f 

J 

«       1856 

0 

• 

J 

Graham 

« 

« 

Matushik 

t 

t 

Masquerier 

k 

J 

Pickering 

sh 

zh 

616.  Among  ihe  toorst  of  theae  and  other  forms,  are  those  which  were  intended  to  recall 
the  erroneous  English  notation,  or  to  convey  the  impression,  that  f  has  some  aspirate 
relation  to  s,  §  68.     Still  worse  is  the  desecration  of  Latin  Cay. 

617.  The  Sanscrit  5|t,  according  to  Wilkins,  "is  produced  by  applying  the  tip  of  the 
tongue  to  the  fore  part  of  the  palate,  and  passing  the  voice  as  in  pronouncing  our  «." 

*  Prooeedings  of  the  American  Fhilosophioal  Sooiety,  Vol.  4,  p.  268. 
t  An  S  ftcing  the  left,  and  a  Z  facing  the  right. 


ANALYTIC  OUTnOGRAl'lir. 


Ill 


Eichhoff,  who  took  bin  pronunciation  from  the  Tpouth  of  Ramtnohun  Roy,  makes  it  French 
ch,  Eng.  sh,  and  Max  Miiller  docs  the  same.  Dopp  makes  it  diiTercnt,  he  marks  it  >,  the 
English  fih  sound  being  assigned  to  the  fourth  cerebral  of  §  401.  I^psius  (Alphal)ct  p. 
42,)  and  Ellis,  thinks  it  x-  %  the  description  of  Wilkins,  it  may  be  a  sound  between  s 
and  f,  or  a  flat  s,  or  one  formed  a  little  posterior  to  the  ordinary  point  of  contact.  Wo 
have  been  accustomed  to  uso  f  for  it,  but  as  this  is  unsatisfactory  for  a  doubtful  sound. 
EichhofF's  character  9  may  bo  used,  x  n^ust  have  occurred  in  the  antecedents  of  Sanscrit, 
although  it  seems  foreign  to  the  genius  of  Sanscrit  itself. 

618.  The  liquidH  of  tfie  palatul  contact  are  a  kind  of  J  (ym)  made  at  the  palatal  point, 
and  as  Eng.  to,  v,  and  r,  z,  are  permutable,  so  3  fulls  into  j,  and  its  surd  anpirate  into  f. 

519.  Hence  the  word  soldier  (sssoldjr,  or  sold^or,)  is  apt  to  fall  into  soldj-r;  and  nature 
(snet-"}  Xf  net"}  }  t,  or  net}  x,)  into  netfi;,  or  netfai;. 

520.  Jotacism  (i/otaoum)  is  the  forming  of  J  or  some  other  allied  sound  HunnUnneouxly 
with  a  continuous  consonant  made  with  the  outer  part  of  the  tongue,  as  «,  r,  /.  Let  the 
back  part  of  the  tongue  be  held  in  contact  near  the  J  [yea)  point,  and  the  apex  upon  /, 
in  forming  li  in  million,  when  the  e£fect  will  be  mil}}  on,  as  the  French  fille  is  fil} ,  or  fil/} , 
or  (eliding  /,)  fi"} . 

521.  f,  J,  must  be  yotaciaed  with  the  true  J  (yea,)  because  an  attempt  to  do  so  on  the  } 
basis,  would  produce  a  sound  between  mute  and  liquid,  like  the  fusion  of  English  r,  z. 

522.  There  is  probably  no  true  yotacism  (§  519)  after  labials  (p,  b,  m,)  and  gutturals 
(cay,  gay,)  or  abrupts,  for  how  are  pj,  gj,  (or  p} ,  g} ,)  tj,  t} ,  to  be  sounded  except  in  suc- 
cession? The  simultaneous  effect,  like  that  cited  in  million  (properly  miMjun,)  is  there- 
fore cut  off  in  the  Russian  pjet"}  (five,  whilst  in  s>}Em  (seven)  it  is  apparent,  with  a  surd 
liquid  preceding  the  sonant  which  meets  the  vowel. 

523.  T?ie  palatal  liquid  seems  to  be  present  in  the  French  gn,  Spaniuh  ii,  as  in  cigogne 
(ssioon} ,)  nino  (=nin}  o.) 

524.  CastrevbS  notation  of  real  or  supposed  yotacism  requires  numerous  types,  us  be 
passes  a  curved  line  (")  through  the  stem  of  the  affected  elements,  as  1,  r,  n,  (the  right 
side,)  t,  d,  8,  z,  c,  (ts.)  A  small  palatal  or  guttural  'J'  (as  the  case  may  require,)  would 
be  more  economical,  and  might  be  understood  to  be  surd  after  surds.  Mr.  Ellis  uses  j,  a 
character  made  by  removing  the  dots  of  j. 


'  c,  m  car. 
*  G,  in  g^et. 
"  /■  (gJ  sing. 


525.      GUTTURALS. 

*  c,  bucA.  ^  q,  \ch.  *  x,  Swiss  vibrant. 

*  G,  betro.9en.      ^  £,  (y )  konir/e    *  y,  Ellenic  id. 


10 


J,  you. 


"  J,  hue. 


"  J.,  nasal,  §647. 


112 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


Hi 


526.  We  adopt  c,  o,  instead  of  k,  g,  proposing  that  a  small  (lower  case)  letter  be  made 
for  G  on  the  model  of  c.  Mr.  A.  D.  Sproat  says — "  The  forms  of  the  Roman  and  Italian 
letters  (g  excepted)  are  beautiful."*  In  fact,  g  is  an  ugly  perversion  in  which  the  intended 
affinity  between  c,  g,  is  destroyed.  The  dot  of  g  is  that  of  c,  the  circle  is  its  body,  and 
its  tail  is  the  distinguishing  carvilium  or  mark  of  sonancy.  The  French  have  a  lower 
case  form  modelled  on  (q;,)  the  written  form,  which  associates  it  with  its  congener,  normal 
J  j.  g  itself  should  be  curtailed  (cr)  so  as  not  to  project  below  the  line. 

527.  We  adopt  Gay  Gay  as  cognates  in  power  and  form,  in  the  chief  languages  written 
in  the  Roman,  as  distinguished  from  the  Greek  alphabet.  K  is  a  foreign  letter  in  Italian, 
Spanish,  and  French,  where  q  is  acknowledged — itself  preferable  to  h,  but  q  is  required 
in  its  oriental  sense. 

528.  Tlie  use  of  h  would  tend  to  force  it  upon  Latin,  and  although  this  has  been  done 
by  Rask  and  Rapp,  it  is  a  dangerous  course — but  a  course  which  shows  the  necessity  of 
giving  Cay  its  proper  power  in  all  cases. 

529.  It  is  true  that  *C'  is  an  S  in  Greek,  but  deceptively,  the  Greek  and  Russian  C 
being  a  form  of  i",  S,  whilst  Cay  is  a  form  of  F  which  in  some  cases  had  a  semicircular 
form  in  Greek.  See  Franz,  p.  25.  Similarly,  x  in  beattx  is  a  form,  not  of  Latin  x,  but  of 
s,  as  French,  Spanish,  and  English  y  is  a  form,  not  of  Greek  and  Danish  y,  but  of  Latin 
ij,  as  is  shown  in  the  older  typography  of  Latin,  where  they  are  often  printed  from 
a  single  type. 

530.  Gay  cannot  be  igmtred,  (§43-5,)  because  it  will  be  always  present  in  etymologic 
Latin,  in  Anglisb,  Welsh,  and  Irish,  Spanish,  French,  Italian,  and  old  English.  Probably 
every  school,  and  the  great  majority  of  reading  families,  will  have  an  etymologic 
dictionary,  and  scholars  acquainted  with  the  Latin  alphabet,  may  be  inclined  to  represent 
the  pair,  cay,  gay,  with  the  proper  letters  in  exotic  languages,  where  the  natives  cannot 
be  prejudiced. 

531.  If  hah  is  used,  its  stem  should  be  shortened,  as  in  Kneeland's  character,  and  as 
one  of  its  inscriptive  forms  is  ;,  this  might  even  be  adopted,  such  a  double  character 
being  less  objectionable  than  an  entire  k.  The  Punic  cay  is  C  with  a  vertical  line 
through  it,  as  in  0.     The  Albanian  k  is  a  semicircle  {^). 

532.  The  greatest  concession  that  could  be  allowed  to  hah,  would  be  a  character  made  of 
h  with  the  vertical  line  removed,  leaving  c  with  a  break  towards  the  left,  which  would  be 
useful  in  distinguishing  script  c  from  e.     But  even  this  would  be  dangerous,  because  the 

*  An  Endeavour  towards  a  Universal  Alphabet,  p.  10.  It  appears  from  a  notice  in  the  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  1840, 
Vol.  XXXIX.  p.  197,  that  this  author  addressed  a  letter  to  Prof.  Silliman  on  the  subject  of  bis  alphabet,  dated 
Feb.  22,  1834,  (§  80,  79.)     It  is  noticed  in  the  Phon.  Jour.,  Feb.  20,  1855. 


ANALTTIO  ORTHOORAPHT. 


113 


rejected  c  would  then  be  at  the  mercy  of  every  one  who  might  want  a  new  character;  so 
that  whilst  c,  e  would  be  too  much  alike  with  c  as  cat/,  the  case  would  be  different  with  a 
perverted  power.  Moreover,  u  and  n  are  more  alike  than  c  and  c,  v  and  r,  and  various 
examples  we  have  taken  from  native  sources,  are  worthless  on  this  account. 

533.  The  QotJtic  hemi-greek  aljpJiabet  has  7e,  with  which  the  Germans  barbarised  their 
alphabet,  especially  in  the  use  of  the  hibrid  ck,  but  ck  and  ch  are  concessions  to  the  true 
cay,  and  the  use  of  k  has  not  caused  kk  and  kh  to  replace  ck  and  cJi.  An  Englishman 
will  spell  'sceptic'  rather  than  'skeptic;'  an  Italian  prefers  'chi,'  and  the  Spaniard  'qui' 
to  ki,  whilst  any  one  desirous  of  uniformity,  who  acknowledges  'ca'  to  be  correct,  will  not 
object  to  ce,  ci,  if  he  is  provided  with  the  means  of  spelling  tre,  tri. 

534.  The  use  of  kah  for  cay  is  to  be  deprecated  in  a  highly  latinised  language  like 
English.  It  is  equivalent  to  granting  that  when  words  change,  the  spelling  should  not 
change  (§455,)  but  that  a  new  character  must  be  placed  in  the  unchanged  words;  letting 
t  in  the  French  'nation'  have  the  power  of  a,  using  a  for  z,  as  in  rose,  and  going  to  Greek 
for  a  new  r  with  which  to  spell  words  like  'narif.'  This  mode  is  always  wrong — that 
which  does  not  interfere  with  forms  which  retain  their  historic  value,  is  believed  to  be 
always  right,  no  matter  how  long  the  time  during  which  it  has  been  neglected  or  broken.*" 

535.  In  old  high'Qerman  and  middle  high  German,  Cay  and  Kah  were  both  used,  and 
cay  quite  extensively,  so  that  if  the  Germans  were  to  re-adopt  it,  it  would  be  a  restoration 
rather  than  a  novelty. 

536.  Etymologic  relations.  (§135.)  c^sar,  Ohg.  caesar,  keisar,  cheisar.  caseus,  Ohg. 
kas,  case,  chase,  Ang.  cese,  Eng.  cheese,    croc-io,  to  croak,  Ang.  circ,  Eng.  kirk,  church. 

*  Mr.  Ellis  puts  a  note  here  to  the  effect  that  English  k,  y,  z,  will  prevail.  "  As  I  deny  the  effect  of  k  for  c  in 
altering  the  relations — merely  altering  them  to  the  eye,  not  the  ear — the  argument  does  not  touch  me.  To  mark 
the  connection  between  English  and  Latin  by  the  eye  onli/,  I  consider  false."  This  remark  is  just,  and  we  admit 
that  like  letters  should  represent  similar  sounds.  "If  we  know  c^k,"  [and  we  know  and  have  it  as  well  for 
English  as  for  Latin]  "this  is  enough,  wo  may  then  change  the  Latin;  writing  (in  palaeotypo)  kaizar?  kaisar, 
keesar,  caeiar;  kaaseus,  caseui;  krookioo,  crocio;  .  .  .  Ang.  keeze,  cese,  Eng.  tshiiz,  cheese,  &c.,  where  the  real 
comparison  is  between  the  phonetic  words,  and  the  original  spelling  (and  meaning)  is  merely  added  as  a  means  of 
identification.  We  must  thus  alter  Sanscrit,  Greek,  Hebrew, — why  not  Latin  too?  I  doubt  whether  we  shall 
ever  get  people  to  agree  on  a  pronunciation  of  Latin,  even  by  introducing  such  an  alphabet  as  yours.  Let  us 
introduce  the  best  we  cai)  get  people  to  accept,  even  though  we  pay  the  price  of  letting  Latin  be  like  the  ust,  a 
language  to  be  transliterated." 

To  this  we  reply,  that  in  transliterating  Sanscrit,  we  do  not  falsify  a  single  Sanscrit  letter,  whilst  in  thus 
meddling  with  Latin,  the  falsifications  cannot  even  have  the  collateral  merits  of  uniformity  and  stability — even  if 
we  do  not  take  truth  to  the  original  into  account.  No  one  can  yet  predict  the  degree  of  perfection  which  people 
will  or  may  be  prepared  to  accept,  but  the  fact  is  constantly  before  us,  that  the  nation  which  has  advanced 
furthest  in  civilization,  has  adopted  a  metric  system  in  no  way  connected  with  the  systems  already  in  use,  8y!<tom8 
which  every  other  nation  would  probably  have  determined  to  be  too  firmly  associated  with  political  organisation 
and  domestio  life,  to  render  a  reform  desirable  or  possible.  Farther,  an  alphabet  displeasing  to  a  European 
hetcrotypist,  may  meet  with  favor  when  examined  by  Cherokees  or  Ghippeways.  .  'r'i 


114 


AKALYTIO  ORTHOORAPHT. 


>w, 


:i| 


ill 


Ang.  cing,  Irish,  ceann,  Welsh,  cun,  £ng.  king,  cancer,  Ohg.  cancur,  Eng.  canker. 
CARCER,  Ger.  kerker,  Ohg.  carcare,  karkari,  (prison.)  cithara,  Ohg.  citara,  Eng.  guitar. 
GENU,  Ohg.  cneo,  chniu,  kniu,  Ang.  cneov,  Eng.  knee,  coqvus,  Ohg.  koch,  coch,  choc; 
Ang.  coc,  Eng.  cook,=cuc,  Ic  u  Ic,  kuk. 

537.  We  ratlier  prefer  G.  for  the  nasal  of  sing,  because  it  tells  what  the  phase  is,  and  we 
are  averse  to  associating  the  sound  with  an  n-character,  which  would  be  paralleled  by 
representing  d  with  a  g  character.  It  is  the  English  and  German  ng  in  sing,*  finger,= 
Eng.  iiG.GT,  Ger.  fiG.r,  (§20-22.)  It  is  common  in  Greek  and  Latin,  rare  in  Italian,  and 
unknown  to  Russian  and  normal  French;  but  we  have  heard  it  in  the  Frovensal  dialect 
at  Marseilles,  in  Savoy,  and  in  the  Bearnais  of  Pau.  It  occurs  in  Spanish,  Catalonian, 
Armenian,  and  in  the  Tonga  group. 

538.  Pitman,  Ellis,  &c.,  use  \s,  g,  and  Comstock,  i)>  whicli  have  the  advantage  of  being 
like  'j,'  the  representative  of  the  allied  liquid.  Others  use  the  same  small  letter  with 
the  end  turned  towards  the  right,  which  is  less  convenient  in  print.  We  recommend  Mr. 
Pitman! 8  form,  because  it  may  be  introduced  into  Latin  (like  J  for  I,)  which  we  dare  not 
do  with  G,.  Bohtlingk  and  Sjogren  use  H.  (a  nasalised  Russian  N,)  which  is  wrong  in 
theory.  In  the  less  modern  alphabets,  ng  is  used.  Eichhoff  uses  n;  Marsden,  ng  circum- 
fiexed;  Lepsius,  n  with  a  dot  above,  and  Max  Miiller,  a  capital  N.  We  use  r  temporarily, 
because  it  is  accessible  in  Greek  typography. 

'c        'q        *-^,  «u;-rf.  §525.  ^ 

®  G        ^"2         '■  y,  sonant. 

539.  There  are  three  surd,  and  two  sonant  Germanic  aspirates;  the  first  (q)  in  ich  is 
the  smoothest  and  most  anterior  (§471,)  forced  forward  by  the  closure  required  for  close 
vowels; — the  second  (c)  in  ach,  buch,  the  Greek  Xt  and  according  to  some  (but  doubtfully) 
the  Spanish  j  (jota;) — the  third,  the  rough  Swiss  vibrant  aspirate,  as  in  ich=ldx — a 
sound  we  have  heard  in  Lenape.  We  have  also  heard  the  Swiss  sound  untrilled,  as  in 
;t;antdn,  a  canton.  In  the  Swiss  dialect,  it  does  not  vary  before  i,  e,  and  from  the  slight 
vowel  interposed  in  the  word  ich,  the  position  of  I  seems  too  narrow  for  it,  although  they 
say  giidt  for  gut  good,  gediant,  &c.,  where  id  accounts  for  the  German  and  English  ie 
spelling. 

540.  We  cannot  determine  the  relation  of  this  x  to  the  oriental  aspirate  of  Q,  (or  surd  of 
ghain,)  having  heard  them  at  distant  periods;  but  they  are  probably  distinct. 

541.  We  ttse  X  provisionally  (§386)  for  any  Germanic  or  other  allied  ch  sound  which 

*  We  have  knowo  a  distinguished  scholar  to  contend  that  'sing'  ought  to  be  pronounced  sing-g,  because  it  has 
a  final  g  in  the  spelling.  This  shows  that  the  advantages  ot°  fdnbttpi  (compare  oAnepi,)  are  not  confined  to  the 
unlettered.     See  §27,  note. 


ANALYTIC  ORTH06RAFHT. 


115 


we 
by 


-a 


has  not  been  particularly  described  or  discriminated,  although  the  proper  power  of  x  ^^ 
that  in  the  German  buck.  Pantol^n,  who  speaks  Ellenic,  ascribes  to  Greek  x  ^th  the 
sounds  of  buck  and  ich.  The  smooth  c  is  heard  (before  e,  i,)  in  the  Spanish  general, 
registro,  (=ceneral,  recistro.) 

542.  'G  is  recognised  in  some  dialects  of  German.  We  regard  it  as  the  sonant  of  'c.  By 
G*  (f)  we  indicate  the  EUenic  (not  Hellenic,)  or  modern  Greek  soft  vibrant  r-  None  of 
these  is  the  harsh  oriental  gh  as  we  have  heard  it  in  Arabic  and  Armenian.  This  belongs 
to  the  deeper  contact  of  Q.  But  most  authorities  consider  the  Germanic,  Ellenic,  and 
Oriental  "  gh  "  identic.  Lepsius  uses  r  for  (g  )  the  incorrectly  named  "  guttural  r,"  and 
Faulmier  uses  r  for  Arabic  ghain.  See  §  513. 

543.  We  adopt  Mr.  Ellis's  two  key  words  betro^ren  ('g)  and  koni(/e  (V,  2O  for  the  spi- 
rants of  g.  He  adopts  an  additional  character  (a  tailed  i)  for  Spanish  j. —  Universal 
Writing,  &c.  p.  6'. 

544.  The  follofmng  notations  may  be  compared.  Properly  as  the  q  character  (meaning 
the  form  of  Pitman  and  Ellis,  is  formed  on  c,  the  V  should  be  formed  on  g  with  the  same 
appendage. 


huch, 

ich, 

tage, 

tdglich. 

c 

Q 

G 

2(» 

Ellis 

X 

9 

s 

g 

Lepsius 

Z' 

/ 

i 

i 

MiiUer 

'h 

'y 

'h 

y 

Rapp 

X 

X 

/ 

■i    i. 


545.  We  follow  Eapp,  Bohtlingk,  i^ogren,  Gastren,  Matushik,  S^unic',  and  Poklukar,  in 
adopting  the  character  'J'  for  the  initial  of  the  English  year,  Belg.  jaar,  and  German 
jahr;  Latin  jugd",  Ital.  jugo  (and  giogo,)  Spanish  yugo,  Gothic  juk,  Ger.  joch,  Angl. 
geoc,  joe,  Eng.  yoke,  =  JOC.  J  is  used  with  its  historic  value  in  the  Etujlish  alphabets 
of  Hart,  1851;  R.  R.,  Phonotypic  J.  1846,  p.  160;  and  the  Rev.  W.  M.  Reynolds,  (Pre- 
sident of  Wittenberg  College,  Ohio,)  1846.* 

546.  The  surd  aspirate  "J  occurs  in  the  English  hue,  hew; — ^yh  of  its  discoverer  Ellis. 
546a.  Nasal  J^  occurs  in  Jakutish.  Bohtlingk's  letter  is  j  with  a  horizontal  line  through 

the  top.    We  have  heard  it  in  Cherokee. 

*  He  says  (Lit.  Record  of  Penna.  College,  Vol.  1,  p.  48,) — "  The  letters  0,  Q,  x  and  T  are  rejected,  the  first 
three  as  superfluoas,  and  the  T  on  ticeount  ofitt  unsettled  power  in  English  as  well  as  in  other  languages."  Here 
an  author,  by  following  Lepsins's  Bole  III,  p.  82,  rejects  y  and  adopts/,  whilst  Lepsius  does  the  reverse — thus 
demonstrating  that  the  <  rale'  which  was  unphiloeophic  is  also  impracticable,  and  therefore  no  Rvle.  See  §  167, 
end  of  the  note. 


116 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOORAFUY. 


fh 


,'^>  .T<» 


FAUCALS. 


^        -  Qq,    Q,    2r(2.) 

547.  ^^ /at^ca7«  toe  77i«a7i  certain  consonants  of  which  the  type  is  the  oriental  Q  qa/f 
the  2l8t  letter  of  the  Arabic  alphabet,  and  (p)  the  19th  of  the  Hebrew.  Qaf  is  a  kind  of 
posterior  cai/,  made  behind  the  palatal  veil,  and  therefore  incapable  of  nasality.  Guided 
by  description,  we  pronounced  them  correctly  (except  ain)  before  hearing  them  in  nature. 

548.  The  surd  aspirate  of  Q  IB  the  aeyenih  Arahic  letter  ^7uz.  Richardson  says  ''it  is 
generated  by  a  gentle  vibration  in  the  throat."  This  removes  it  from  Greek  (x)  and  Ger- 
man c7i.  Its  letter  would  be  'Q,  but  as  this  implies  a  smooth  form,  it  is  better  to  indicate 
the  vibration  by  (J,  or  still  better  QT. 

549.  The  sonant  o/Q  is  the  19th  letter  ^ghain'  of  the  Arabic  alphabet,  and  the  third 
'gimd'  (=  Gijmfl,)  of  the  Hebrew.  We  indicate  it  by  2  (not  2  with  a  straight  base,) 
from  its  similarity  to  Q.  The  mark  of  vibration  would  be  an  advantage,  and  should  a 
lenis  form  occur,  its  sign  would  be  '2.^"  Richardson  (Arabic  Diet.)  says  correctly,  that  it  is 
"  articulated  in  the  throat  with  a  vibration  producing  a  sound  like  that  given  to  r  by  the 
Northumbrians,  or  the  noise  made  in  gargling.  ...  It  seems  to  bear  the  same  relation  to 
kh  as  b  to  p."    It  is  not  the  German  g  in  regen,  §  542. 

550.  We  cite  Armenian  examples  of  Q*,  ST, — which,  though  identic  with  the  Arabic  equi- 
valents, they  seem  to  have  a  dialectic  variation,  as  we  have  heard  Armenian  ghain  re- 
placed with  Ellenic  ghamma,  §  542.  The  letters  are  purposely  varied  for  comparison, 
here  and  in  the  next  paragraph. 


danda^k,  a  cymbal. 

qb"'q  B'ntfel,    a  neigh. 


qelc,     tha  mind. 
(J^a'tf ,    a  crucifix. 


551.  As  independent  p{.^,  i\.0,  c{.;(,  can  be  formed  without  air  from  the  lungs  (§  446,)  so 
in  the  Chinook  of  Oregon,  q.(.'q  is  similarly  treated,  according  to  the  pronunciation  of  Dr. 
J.  K.  Townsend,  which  we  acquired.  But  Mr.  Hale  makes  the  sound  t;f1,  in  which  he  is 
probably  wrong,  because  all  agree  that  the  Chinook  sound  is  a  very  difficult  one  to  pro- 
nounce, whilst  Hale's  is  an  easy  combination.  Moreover,  the  effect  upon  the  ear  is  not 
unlike  that  in  the  word  for  thigh  given  in  §  448,  which  we  learnt  in  nature.    In  the  fol- 

*  Mr.  Hale  notices  a  sound  which  may  be  a  variety  of  this,  in  the  Patagonian  language.  It  is  formed  in  the 
innermost  part  of  the  mouth,  which  opens  a  little,  the  tip  of  the  tongue  being  applied  to  the  lower  gum.  The 
tonant  of  Q  seems  to  occur  in  Berber,  and  dialeotically  in  Arabic— judging  from  the  paper  of  F.  W.  Newman, 
Esq.,  in  the  Philol.  Soo.  Proceedings,  1848,  Vol.  1,  p.  137. 


ANALTTIO  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


117 


lowing  examples  (in  which  allowance  must  be  made  for  two  'personal  equations')  the 
vowels  are  normal,  and  the  diphthong  as  in  out. 

hevq^^'qeq^qe,  grandmother.        Q|.'qavQ|.qavBQJ.'q,  ycZfow.* 


LARTNGALS. 


r 
I. 


8 

h 

T 


letiia. 


jfi    G,  7,  8,  aspirate. 

8 


552.  The  laryngal  contact  pertains  to  the  larynx,  and  we  adopt  the  term,  in  preference 
to  glottal,  because  this  is  commonly  made  to  include  the  faucals  or  pharyngals.  But  the 
faucals  of  Lepsius  are  our  laryngals. 

553.  Many  deny  that  A  is  a  consonant,  because  *  it  is  not  made  by  contact  or  interrup- 
tion.' But  when  the  breath  is  impelled  through  an  aperture  which  obstructs  it,  there  is 
interruption,  and  if  we  vary  the  impulse  we  can  make  English  oo  and  lo  with  the  same 
aperture. 

554.  Tlie  walla  of  the  glottis  can  close,  thus  forming  a  consonant  contact;  and  as  the 
glottal  fissure  (§  148)  is  the  narrowest  part  of  the  breathing  tube,  it  is  the  seat  of  the  deep- 
est point  of  interruption,  and  of  h. 

555.  The  spiritua  lenia  (')  has  been  described  in  §  115a,  but  authors  are  not  agreed  about 
it.  Some  make  it  the  Hebrew  aleph,  and  Arabic  hamza,  about  which  opinions  differ  also. 
Max  Miiller  says  (Languages  of  the  Seat  of  War,  p.  xxvii.-viii.,) — "  We  can  more  easily 
perceive  what  is  meant  by  the  spiritus  lenis  inherent  in  every  unaspirated  initial  vowel, 
if  we  pronounce  blacking  and  black  ink. ..in  black  ink,  the  i  is  ushered  in 
by  the  spiritus  lenis.  This  spiritus  lenis  is  the  Hamzeh  of  the  Arabs.  .  .  .  Its  sound  is 
produced  by  the  opening  of  the  larynx,  but  there  is  no  previous  effort  of  closing  the  larynx 
which  alone  could  be  said  to  give  it  an  explosive  character."  a.  This  describes  the  spiritus 
lenis  as  understood  by  moderns,  hut  the  hamza  is  nothing  like  it. 

556.  Ellis  gives  the  spiritus  lenis  as  occurring  between  ao  in  a,orta,  being  "the  slight 
effort  made  when  any  vowel  sound  is  uttered,"  whilst  in  the  hamza — "the  effort  of 

*  This  Boand  is  probably  identic  with  that  described  by  the  late  Rev.  Emmanuel  Naxera,  a  Mexican  ecclesiastic, 

as  found  in  the  Othomi  language  of  that  country.     "  K  simplex  vel  duplex  est.    Duplex  Hispauo-Mexicani  gram- 

matioi  cc  castanuela$  Tooant,  quia  ejus  sonus  similis  est  stridorl  &  simi&  facto,  nuoes  frangenti.     Litteris  cc,  qq, 

vel.  qh  ooulis  pingitur.     T,  aliquandi  etikm  sonitu  effertur."    (§  448.) — Am.  Phil.  Trans.  Vol.  Y,  new  series,  p. 

%254,  1837. 

This  Tshinook  fauoal  may  be  the  Hottentot  guttural  clack,  described  by  Thunberg  as  "  the  most  difficult  uf  all, 
and  performed  quite  low  down  in  the  throat,  with  the  very  root  of  the  tongue."  v^ 


» 


118 


ANALTTIO  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


enunciation  and  separation  of  the  following  vowel  from  preceding  sounds  is  more  distinct. 
An  exaggeration  of  this  produces  a  kind  of  bleat,  which  is  the  true  Arabic  gain." — 
Univ.  Writing,  p.  5"  below. 

507.  Lepsius  aaya — "By  closing  the  throat  and  then  opening  it  to  pronounce  a  vowel, 
we  produce  the  slight  explosive  sound  which  in  the  Eastern  languages  is  marked 
separately,  but  not  in  the  European,  except  in  the  Greek.  We  perceive  it  distinctly 
between  two  vowels  which,  following  each  other,  are  pronounced  separately,  as  in 
go  'over."  Here  the  hamza  is  correctly  described,  and  the  English  e£fect  improperly 
referred  to  it. 

558.  We  do  not  think  it  necessary  to  represent  the  initial  eflfect  of  at  ('a<,  or  better — 
''at,  or  caat,  with  whispered  a,)  as  distinguished  from  hat,  unless  the  glottis  is  closed — 
and  we  do  not  mean  the  epiglottis,  which  cannot  act  in  speech. 

559.  We  deem  the  effect  in  black  "ink,  a  oita,  go  "over,  Fr.  le  "heros,  as  a  separation 
akin  to  diaeresis  (§168,)  or  an  accentual  difference  without  separation,  as  in  zoophyte, 
neophyte,  zoology,  neology. 

560.  Hiatus  (*)  is  a  break  or  pause  commonly  caused  by  dropping  an  intermediate 
element  and  not  closing  the  remainder,  the  word  and  each  of  its  constituents  retaining 
their  proper  length,  as  in  saying  o  *orae  (not  a  orae,)  for  a  horse,  or  a  "orse.  See  Ellis, 
Essentials,  p.  41.  It  would  occur  in  zo-ophyte,  if  the  least  pause  were  made,  and 
avoiding  hamza. 

561.  Such  a  hiatus  has  been  attributed  to  the  name  Hawai'i,  as  compared  with  the 
earlier  New  Zealand  word  hawaiA;i.  But  whilst  one  traveller  called  our  attention  to  this 
'  hiatus,'  two  others  pronounced  this  word  (as  they  believed)  in  the  native  mode,  with  a 
genuine  hamza.  (§568.)  Wm.  Ellis  (Polynesian  Researches,  vol.  4,  cb.  2,)  does  not 
mention  anything  of  the  kind  in  giving  the  pronunciation  of  Hausan,  but  in  his  appendix 
on  the  language,  he  speaks  of  "a  peculiar  break"  distinguishing  o'u  (/)  from  ou  (you,) 
this  being,  as  it  seems,  a  diphthong  beginning  with  true  o. 

562.  We  do  not  adopt  tlie  two  dots  of  §§  227,  306,  to  indicate  hiatus,  because  they  are 
used  for  an  etymologic  "and  not  for  a  phonetic  purpose;  and  because  we  prefer  a  sign 
more  like  that  used  for  the  (hamza,  §  568,)  closure  of  the  glottis — although  hiatus  does 
not  belong  to  any  contact. 

563.  The  sign  ()  represents  the  slight  phase,  whether  aspirate,  independent  (§446,)  or 
even  vocal,  at  the  close  of  abrupt  syllables,  as  in  top*,  tub',  or  tubh. 

564.  The  sign  (')  indicates  the  opposite  phase  to ',  where  the  breath  is  not  allowed  to 
escape  after  tap"  (the  lips  remaining  closed,)  as  in  Chinese.  This  inconvenient  notation 
is  preferred  to  (')  because  this  is  used  to  contradict  aspiration  like  that  of  s,  i>,  not  the 


AMALTTIC  ORTHOORAPHT. 


119 


Ct. 


false  'aspiration'  like  that  of  p  in  'haphazard/  vhioh  is  no  more  aspirate  than  the  p  in 
up  stain. 

565.  H,  h,  is  the  common  English  and  German  h,  in  the  syllables  held,  hat,  hast,  hose. 
It  is  unknown  to  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  Russian,  and  EUenic.  -.    ; , ; 

566.  j/ji  ^,  w  for  the  eighth  Hebrew  letter  hheth  (='/i€J<>,)  and  the  sixth  (hha)  of  the 
Arabic  alphabet.  We  adopt  the  Greek  •^  inverted  (but  of  a  better  form  than  these,) 
which  is  nearly  the  Ethiopic  and  Amharic  letter  of  probably  the  same  Arabic  hJta. 

567.  ^  (h)  is  commonly  called  an  emphatic  A,  and  often  represented  by  hh.  As  heard 
by  us,  it  is  an  enforced,  somewhat  close  h,  with  a  tendency  to  scrape  along  the  throat, 
and  consequently,  it  is  not  a  pulmonic  aspirate.  But  S^ufiic'  probably  describes  a  differ- 
ent element,  for  he  compares  it  to  the  open  coughing  of  an  ox,  which  differs  from  h  as 
warm  or  pulmonic  breath  differs  from  it.*"  The  glottis  would  be  opened  for  such  an  ele- 
ment beyond  the  normal  position,  so  as  to  render  more  lung  exertion  necessary,  to  give 
it  body.  The  pulmonic  breath  is  often  used  in  the  continuous  portion  of  a  cough.  Should 
these  two  varieties  be  found  to  exist  in  speech,  they  will  run  (from  the  closer  to  the  more 
open  direction)  'ft,  h,  h. 

567a.  The  Florentine  aspirate  in  casa,  misericordia,  chi,  we  have  casually  heard,  and 
believe  it  to  be  -ft,  and  also  the  Spanish  j,  x,  before  a,  o,  «,  as  in  jabon  (soap,  =  fa  bon,) 
and  the  geographical  name  San  Juan  (=:  ean-fi  van,)  in  English — sin  vv5n,  which  a  Chinese 
would  accept  for  'crooked  mountain.'  , 

568.  Bamza  is  a  closure  of  the  glottis,  which  we  indicate  hy  > .  It  occurs  as  a  cutting 
off  of  the  breath  at  the  beginning  of  a  cough,  ( >  h,  or  >4>)  during  laughter,  and  when 
the  breath  is  held  in  lifting  a  heavy  weight,  or  in  leaping.  It  is  found  in  Wyandot  (§  486) 
and  Chippeway. 

569.  Rapp  considers  thespintus  lenis  a  closure,  and  writes  it  (1, 84)  with  y.  He  cites  a 
South  German  negation  (1,166;  2,267,)  with  which  we  are  vernacularly  familiar,  as 
"haipia,"  doubling  the  sign  to  shorten  the  (nasal)  vowel.f  We  would  write  it  (with  h 
nasal  "also,  h^B, '~  >  b,",  both  vowels  being  short,  the  first  accented.J  It  has  several  vowel- 
less  forms  which  he  writes  hmmyrn,  hnnypiy  &c.,  (*mm'>m,''nn'>'n,  'g,g/>g,  or  '  f!''>f.) 

570.  The  Arabic  and  Hebrew  ain  Volney  regarded  as  a  vowel  modification,  using  a 
marked  a  (e,  o)  for  it,  the  sound  being  forii*ed  with  a  varying  vowel  aperture.  The 
vowel  is  heard  with  a  simultaneous  faucal  scrape,  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  sufficient 

*  See  Ellis,  Essentials,  p.  40,  §  5,  6 

f  The  oorresponding  i/et,  which  Rapp  writes  "  hmhm"'  is  rather  m*  lum',  the  second  syllable  accented.  In  Eng- 
lish a  single  long  m  is  sometimes  used  fur  i/e»,  as  cited  in  Medhurst's  Chinese  Dictionary. 

"l  Not  having  examined  Ellenic  with  a  view  to  deteot  hamsa,  we  have  no  settled  opinion  in  regard  to  the  an- 
cient spiritus  lenis. 


120 


ANALYTIC  OBTHOGRAPHT. 


interruption  to  make  a  modified  liquid;  and  the  vowel  and  scraping  effect  being  8imul- 
tancous,  they  cannot  be  represented  by  a  consonant  character  preceding  a  vowel  one,  as  , 
H  a.    We  propose  a  minute  <  below  the  vowel  character. 

571.  Tlie  Sanscrit  visarga  (:)  is  a  final  "strong  aspirate"  (Sir  W.  J.)  which  becomes  a 
in  languages  which  do  not  admit  it,  as  the  Hebrew  final  oi  Jonah,  Jeremiah,  is  either  pro- 
nounced 8,  or  supprest.  The  Sanscrit  sound  was  probably  h  pronounced  with  the  mouth 
not  sufficiently  open,  causing  the  breath  to  strike  along  the  fauces  and  palate,  thereby  re- 
ceiving a  modification  suggestive  of  %  and  «.  We  represent  it  by  the  figure  6,  which  is 
sufficiently  like  one  of  the  German  forms  of  capital  h,  whilst  it  is  equally  suggestive  of  a. 

672.  The  following  ayatema  of  notation  have  been  proposed  or  used  for  the  members  of 
this,  and  of  the  preceding  contact. 


FAUOALS. 


Q 


Hebrew, 

Volney, 

Lepsius, 

Richardson, 

Mttller, 

Paulmier, 

Eichhoff, 

Ellis, 

S'unic', 

Riggs, 
*  A  peculiar  form  on  this  basis. 


q 

k 

q 

k' 

K 

q 
'k 


Q 

a 

X 

t 

kh 

'A 

kh 

K' 
X 

h 


LARTNGALS. 


2 

y 
i 

gh 
7t 
r' 


9 


g 
g 


h 

n 

h 
h 

•  • 

h 
h 

H 

h 
h 
h 


n 

h* 

U 

h 

• 

h* 
h' 

Ht 

h* 


a' 


a' 

«« 
•h 


••a,  &c. 
8 


.iw^' 


**  The  Arahio  let  ter.        f  With  a  short  vertical  medial  line. 


LARTNOO-FAUCAL. 

Q        q. 

>  > 

573.  In  the  Waco  of  Texas,  the  entire  surface  from  the  glottis  to  the  Q  position,  form  a 
contact  which  is  opened  suddenly  and  independent  of  the  lungs,  upon  a  vowel  conforma- 
tion, producing  a  clack  or  smack  like  that  which  accompanies  the  separation  of  the  closed 
palms  when  wet  with  soap  and  water.  The  preceding  closure  bears  some  resemblance  to 
the  incipient  act  of  swallowing.  We  describe  it  from  our  mode  of  producing  it,  and  we 
were  said  to  be  the  first  person  with  whom  it  was  not  vernacular,  who  had  acquired  it.* 

*  We  pronoanced  Arabic  q,  qh,  and  gh,  and  Welsh  tt,  rh,  as  ascertained  from  descriptions,  before  they  bad  been 
heard  from  natives,  but  we  did  not  recognise  hamza  from  the  descriptions,  althongh  we  were  familiar  with  the 
phenomenon. 


•    * 


AKALTTIO  ORTHOORAFHT. 


121 


574.  The/ollomng  toords  are  Waco  (ve'co,)  the  r  being  the  vibrant  European  element. 
The  word  for  noee  (ti'sa  > ',)  is  (except  the  first  vowel,)  whispered. 

Oitic<l|.„  eye.  oitiC^s<l|^,    brew.  "      ' 

v'rsqj.,,  foot.  B^rsetq  1^,     shoe. 

isqL,  hand.  is^t" ei&^L,  Hnger. 

ecn^vvarqi.,,  leggins.  iscvitsqj.,,   finger-nail. 

B'tsqj^wsqL,  clweh.  c^cqL,         hreaat. 

075.  The  /dhnoing  is  our  arrangement  of  the  consonants  according  to  the  scheme  in 
§  193,  excluding  theoretic  ones.  The  blanks  are  useful  in  showing  the  phases  which 
are  not  known  to  be  in  use.  Letters  separated  by  a  comma,  belong  to  the  same  point  of 
contact,  as  the  semi-vowel  V  (No.  5)  and  its  coalescent. 

576.  There  are  four  great  divisions  of  the  consonants,  according  to  their  formation  by 
the  lipe,  the  apex  of  the  tongue,  th^io^e  of  the  tongue,  and  the  larynx. 


577.      SCHEME  OF  THE  CONSONANTS. 


h:   ;t 


^little 


8 


'*■ 


rnMRl 

<  LIQUIDS. 

impure 


maeh    ■< 


'nasal 

MUTES. 

l^pnre 


{sonant' 
surd 
r  sonant' 
I,  sard 

{sonant' 
surd 

j*  sonant' 
(surd 


UbUl.|d«ntal. 

■Igmal.    llDgiul. 

MNbrml 

•  IpaUUI.   gottan). 

(Meal.  1  Urjngal 

IMl-3 

MB 

m          M5 

401 

M          62ft 

Ul          bit 

lenis  1 

V.  =v 

- 

- 

}.       J.  =J< 

asper  2 

~i 

•                      " 

- 

- 

lenis  8 

1 

- 

- 

- 

asper  4 

1 

- 

- 

- 

lenis  5 

V,  > 

lb 

r,  T,  r  h 

L 

3      J»'J 

asper  6 

•1? 

-fr,    - 

lenis  7 

. 

• 

- 

asper  8 

''v 

"1 

"r/rr  -" 

- 

'3       'J. 

5         h,J 

lenis  1' 

m 

D 

-       n. 

n^ 

r 

asper  2' 

"i 

'n 

- 

!.?§>«'    - 

lenis  8' 

*« 

- 

- 

- 

•            • 

asper  4' 

«m 

<n 

- 

• 

- 

'   >a 

lenis  5' 

b 

d 

-      d. 

i. 

Q 

- 

asper  6' 

'b&a 

- 

3  f>   3, 

J    2  '0 

2 

lenis  r 

P 

t 

-         t. 

K 

c 

qq    ► 

asper  8' 

'pfiJ- 

SOS} 

K 

f     q  'c 

'q     - 

§490 

*^': 

»Si-»*4 


•^■i.^^/f 


mn 


122 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHT. 


»1.'       . .■,>■-!     .         >1      *::f     -f'-A        t,>t.     .,•-»  ■       I      M  •*•>'*■•■.".' 


:)   ■i.:i^     -'«,;ui-,,»-'i    •!       '  ..-.  ri^'.lV' 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


I'l 


,       >  EXAMPLES. 

The  diffioultiei  attending  the  oonitniotion  of  a  phonetic  alphabet  are  so  great,  that  those  who  have  not  spent  manj 
months  over  the  task,  can  nave  no  adoqunte  conoeptinn  of  them.  After  the  invention  of  au  alphabet  which  seems  theo- 
retically perfect,  the  luckless  inventor  too  frequently  finds,  that  when  practically  applied  it  will  not  realise  his  expect»> 
tions.  Even  should  it  work  tolerably  well,  the  difficult  question  arises  how  far  to  employ  it  properly.  Phonetic  spelling 
is  more  difficult  in  English  than  it  would  be  in  any  other  language,  though  if  the  Irish  or  Scotch  pronunciation  were 
adopted,  or  even  that  of  the  laboring  classes  in  the  agricultural  districts,  the  task  would  be  comparatively  easy. — Phono- 
typtc  Journal,  1846,  p.  156. 

In  expressing  the  sounds  of  a  new  language  .  .  .  the  missionary  should  be  guided  entirely  by  ear,  without  paving  any 
regard  to  etTmological  considerations,  which  are  too  apt  to  mislead  even  the  most  accomplished  scholar.  Max  Muller,  p. 
XX.  ...  we  feel  how  essential  it  is,  in  a  first  attempt  to  fix  a  spoken  language,  that  the  writer  should  not  be  swayed  by 


any  hasty  et^ 
to  decipher  it.  Id. 


ical  theories, 
xxxi. 


The  missionary  should  give  a  true  transcript  of  a  ipoken  language,  and  leave  it  to  others 


§  678.  Some  languages  are  readily  written,  even  by  children,  and  it  is  difli(  u<t  for  one 
who  knows  English  alone,  to  believe  that  various  languages  have  no  more  than  the  five 
primary  vowels  of  Latin ;  or  that  the  vowel  of  up  is  not  universal.  Yet  in  Dacota,  "The 
vowels  are  five  in  number,  and  have  each  one  uniform  sound,"  except  when  nasalised,  and 
"  all  the  syllables  are  enunciated  plainly  and  fully."  The  vowels  are  ''  a  in  father,  e  in 
tJtey,  i  in  marine,  o  in  go,  and  u  in  food." — Eigga.  In  Hawaiian,  "  a  is  always  as  in  father, 
or  shorter  as  in  alt/a,  e  in  hate,  i  in  machine,  o  in  no,  u  in  food.  The  short  sound  of  i  in  bit 
seldom  occurs." —  Wm.  Ellis,  Polynesian  Researches. 

579.  Tlie  unwritten  Polynesian  languages  have  perhaps  more  resemblance  than  French 
and  Italian,  Anglish  and  English,  although  they  have  been  separated  probably  two  thou- 
sand years;  and  EUenic  has  been  permanent  for  the  last  three  centuries,  whilst  English 
has  greatly  varied;  and  is  still  quite  unsettled. 

580.  English  is  an  unsettled  language,  because,  being  composite,  its  materials  have  not 
yet  acquired  their  natural  relations  to  each  other,  wherein  it  resembles  a  chemical  mix- 
ture which  requires  many  years  or  cycles  before  the  results  of  the  various  affinities  appear 
in  a  permanent  crystallisation.  , 

581.  The  orthoepists  blind  themselves  to  the  genius  and  tendencies  of  the  language,  and 
represent  a  jargon  which  no  one  uses  but  the  child  learning  to  read  from  divided  syllables, 
who  turns  'li-on'  into  lie  on;  or  the  German,  who  fancies  that  the  first  syllable  of  'phan- 
tom '  occurs  in  *  elephant,'  because  they  resemble  in  German  and  French. 

582.  We  do  not  object  to  writing  words  syllabically,  if  the  correct  syllables  are  used — if 
gu  in  gun  is  admitted  in  agony,  rather  than  go  or  gone,  the  use  of  which  would  justify 
'gone-shot'  for  gunshot,  and  '  gone'r '  for  gunner.     Such  syllabic  spelling  would  be  like  a 


ANALYTIC  OHTHOORAPHT. 


128 


theory  of  the  catenary  curve  drawn  from  the  consideration  of  a  single  detached  link  hung 
upon  two  nails, — such  factitious  forms  being  less  like  words  than  a  link  is  liiio  a  chain. 

583.  Every  Emjluh  word  of  three  or  more  syllables  requires  the  vowel  b,  e,  i,  or  a  syl- 
lable without  a  vowel,  when  the  structure  of  the  word  does  not  interfere  with  it,  as  grci- 
duate,  ae{f-eameneM,  portmanteau,  and  the  difficulty  is  to  decide  upon  the  proper  vowel,  as 
in  candidate,  agitate,  elevate,  expedite,  avenue,  maladiction, — for  vernacular  practice  can- 
not be  controlled  by  the  consideration  that  the  original  was  an  adverb  rather  than  an 
adjective,  unless  it  can  be  shown  that  the  adverbial  form  has  been  preserved  in  speech, 
and  we  think  it  is  not.     With  the  spelling  we  have  nothing  to  do. 

584.  Phonetic  readings  of  'tMuaZ'  and  'feature,  with  zh-y-oo,  tsh-y-oo,  we  do  not  consider 
English,  because  ^  of  u  or  yoo  has  become  zh,  eh,  leaving  a  vowel  without  a  preceding  y. 
(§  311.)  Nor  is  dif-ihox\%  correct,  having  been  dissimilated,  (§292-3,)  and  none  but  a 
scholar,  a  greekist,  (not  Greeceist,)  or  foreigner,  could  sanction  an  English  form  like 
'dif-thon-dzhise'  (for  dip-thong-ise,)  a  form  which  would  allow  but  one  word  for  singing 
and  singeing.  Farther,  a  cramherry  is  no  more  a  cran  berry  than  'amber'  is  anhcr, 
'imbue'  inhue,  or  'aunt'  amt,  Latin  A'MlTd.* 

585.  It  is  supposed  by  some  that  English  spelling  "corresponded  at  some  time  or  other 
to  the  sound  of  words."  (Miiller,  p.  xviii.)  We  think  not.  English  never  had  signs 
for  its  commonest  vowels,  and  as  it  is  difficult  to  determine  where  they  occur,  the 
orthoepists  find  it  easier  to  follow  the  accidents  of  a  spelling  which  at  no  time  represented 
the  language,  than  to  enter  seriously  upon  an  inquiry  into  the  laws  of  English  speech. 
We  admit  that  words  like  action  once  had  o,  and  ended  with  own,  as  in  Spanish  and 
German,  but  we  doubt  whether  the  on  of  honest  ever  formed  a  part  of  them,  and  we  lenow 
that  it  does  not  occur  in  the  English  of  1858.  The  vowel  of  ebb  is  common  enough  in 
English,  but  hardly  so  common  as  to  occur  thirteen  times  in  fourteen  consecutive  words 
containing  sixty  elements,  thus  constituting  one-fifth  of  the  whole.  Yet  it  has  been 
indicated  as  occurring  thus  in  the  fragment — ''  several  passages  were  then  inserted,  and  in 

*  We  do  not  recommend  our  own  pronunciation, — forms  like  tra-vlr,  difrns,  instnoz,  genrl,  temprns,  being  too 
condensed — too  Attic,  for  ordinary  use,  besides  being  more  influenced  by  the  spelling  than  the  genius  of  the 
language  allows.  In  looking  through  the  Phonetic  periodicals,  whilst  preparing  this  essay,  we  find  that  we  have 
been  ignorant  of  the  name  of  many  public  characters.  To  us  there  was  a  fictitious  C14nrickrd  within  two  weeks, 
and  whilst  we  know  that  our  two  friends  "Maokay"  are  respectively  Haci  and  Macbj,  we  do  not  know  the  name 
of  the  poet  Charles  Mackay,  though  we  have  heard  him  named  Maci.  We  mispronounced  the  proper  names 
Tyrwhitt,  Napier,  Hereford,  Bowring  (a  gentleman  we  have  moxe  recently  met,)  Keightley  (which  we  had  classed 
with  Weightman,)  Howiok,  Moore,  Mavor,  Latham,  Youatt,  Lowth,  Houghton  (Hoton,  which  we  classed  with 
Hough,  or  Huf,)  'Aurora  Leigh,'  leg?  layf  lee?  lie?  Once,  when  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  with  a  fellow 
traveller,  we  wished  to  see  a  public  building  of  which  we  had  read,  named  Faneuil  Hall,  and  after  discussing  what 
we  should  ask  for,  we  wisely  concluded  that  the  natives  would  not  understand  us,  or  would  laugh  at  our 
pronunciation — so  we  neither  saw  the  building  nor  learnt  its  name. 


124 


ANALTTIO  ORTHOORAPHT. 


th«m  some  errors  occur,  which  he  begs" — Our  own  pronunciation  of  ttatue  is  stat-yooa 
sUtju,  but  it  appears  that  some  pronounce  it  with  tr,  in  cJiew,  In  a  phonetic  periodical, 
the  former  is  preferred,  because  "it  is  a  neater  sound,  and  is  more  pleasant  to  the  eye." 
That  is,  't'  is  handsomer  than  the  character  which  was  then  used  for  tr.  But  the 
argument  falls  with  the  fall  of  the  character,  and  such  arguments  are  not  valid  at  any  time. 
686.  The  French  toorda  *d^pendance'  and  'diffidence'  with  their  identic  final  syllable, 
were  received  as  identic,  and  have  so  remained.  Yet  a  few  elocutionists  will  have  it  that 
one  of  those  now  English  words  ends  like  dance  and  the  other  like  dense.  ■  But  even  were 
this  80,  as  the  English  and  French  do  not  usually  alter  their  orthography  with  the  varia- 
tions of  speech,  it  is  likely  that  the  denae  pronunciation  would  have  fallen  to  '  dependance,' 
and  dance  to  'diffidence,'  as  in  the  Italian  'dipendenza'  and  'diffidanza.' 

587.  Some  prefer  the  pronunciation  of  men  of  letters,  but  in  the  present  state  of  phonetic 
and  prosodic  knowledge,  as  exhibited  in  the  great  majority  of  the  grammars,  men  of  letters 
constitute  the  ignorant  class,  with  the  perversions  of  French  analogies  added  to  their  ig- 
norance; and  if  the  vulgar  corrupt  (develop?)  words,  they  are  at  least  true  to  the  verna- 
cular laws.  But  in  comparing  a  lettered  with  an  illiterate  pronunciation,  the  two  must 
be  of  the  same  locality  and  dialect,  church  cannot  be  judged  by  kirk;  and  the  words  must 
be  vernacular,  as  one,  two,  three;  body,  head,  arm,  eye; — land,  field,  water,  fire,  house, 
rain,  star,  sun,  moon.  ' 

588.  The  misuse  ofhia  unknoum  to  large  districts  and  various  dialects.  In  fact,  although 
we  have  known  A  to  be  omitted,  we  have  never  heard  kat  for  at,  hear  for  ear,  &c.  As  the 
Welsh  poat  for  boat  is  due  to  the  Welsh  law  of  permutation,  so  the  cockney  misplacement 
of  h  may  be  a  C'eltic  remnant  based  on  a  form  like  the  Irish  an  oigh  (the  virgin,)  na  hogha 
(of  the  virgins.)* 

589.  The  three  different  vowels  of  oose,  up,  eel,  were  once  given  to  us  by  three  lettered 
Cherokees  as  occurring  in  the  second  syllable  (of  four)  of  their  word  for  dght.  We  con- 
sidered it  likely  that  the  up  was  correct,  although  a  '  syllabic'  writer  might  have  consi- 
dered it  as  cert&inly  wrong;  but  when  we  asked  an  unlettered  native,  he  used  no  vowel 
whatever  in  this  place,  and  we  deemed  him  correct  and  the  others  perverted  by  their  syl- 

*  But  more  probably  the  misuse  of  A,  and  the  oonfusion  between  English  to  and  v,  are  due  to  the  differences 
between  the  dialects  of  Anglish  and  those  of  French.  Angiish  and  Latin  had  English  to,  which  the  French  re- 
placed with  their  v,  so  that  there  was  a  continual  conflict  between  the  two  in  words  like  willf  uooil,  way,  veer;  and 
in  toine  and  vtn-egar  the  result  is  heterogeneous.  H,  which  is  stable  in  Teutonic,  is  evanesoent  in  Romanic,  an4 
wanting  in  modern  French,  which  accounts  for  its  misuse  in  the  natural  dialect  of  the  South  oi'  England.  It  is 
worthy  of  remark  that  the  analogous  confusion  between  sonant  and  surd  th  existing  in  the  dialects  of  Anglish,  has 
resulted  in  uniformity,  independently  of  the  spelling;  for  practice  Turied  to  such  an  extent  that  on  the  adoption 
of  the  Roman  alphabet,  both  were  represented  by  (h — which  each  reader  was  expected  to  read  in  his  own  mode. 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOORAPIir. 


125 


labio  alphabet,  which  forces  them  to  write  rictitiously,  and  then  to  xpeak  as  they  write, 
inHtend  of  doing  the  reverse.  The  word  was  ou'^lovooi',  in  three  syllables,  and  having 
Welsh  //.  Similarly,  if  one  orthocpist  would  model  aeven  on  the  Gothic  sibu/i,  another  on 
the  Anglish  »y[on,  and  a  third  on  the  old  i^^nglish  seven,  or  Belgian  seL^n  (with  t  of  endy) 
we  would  still  prefer  saying Mt?n  (=  se&n,)  with  the  /nglish. 

ENGLISU. 

690.  As  there  w  much  con/unon  between  the  medial  of  the  aioe  vowel  in  pond,  cross, 
dross,  horse,  (§  403;)  ond  that  oiodd  in  rod,  John,  (§  407,)  transition  forms  will  be  found 
useful  until  practice  determines  how  the  difficulties  are  to  be  avoided.  We  will  therefore 
use  a*  provisionally  for  the  open  mcdials,  as  in  Qeorge,  b'  for  the  close,  as  in  John,  and  8 
or  Q  for  the  doubtful. 

691.  The  labial  votoele  have  a  similar  difficulty,  and  may  i  oquire  a  transition  letter,  (as 
Mr.  Pitman's  angular  u,  for  doubtful  forms  like  brew,  imbrue,  crew,  §  424-5,  which  we  are 
hardly  competent  to  decide  upon.  Leaving  quantity  out  of  the  question,  we  pronounce 
brew,  &c.,  with  u  whilst  Worcester  (=vu8tT,)  probably  the  most  judicious  of  the  English 
orthoepists,  refers  them  to  the  key  word  move. 


17 


59: 

i.   VOWELS. 

1  a    arm 

§370. 

10    A 

aisle 

§400. 

aB     MP 

374. 

11  n 

awe 

402. 

3  JL    add 

378. 

IV  (9  pond 

,rod) 

403,  407 

4  8    th^re 

388. 

la    0 

odd 

405. 

t  e    ebb 

384. 

13    0 

owe 

416. 

0  e    they 

391. 

18- (0 

whole] 

415. 

T  a    buffet 

392. 

u    " 

pool 

422. 

8  V     pity 

395. 

-(•. 

crew) 

591. 

9 1     field 

399. 

16      U 

pull 

424.       , 

693. 

CONSONANTS 

, 

1  V  now 

35  J              ;.    J 

a  v  way 

10  1          16  r 

17  V  18  r 

«3 

"•l 

gv  wh^y 

- 

- 

223 

27  J          31  h 

4m 

11  n 

- 

— 

mT 

5  A  hm 

— 

— 

— 

— 

eb 

i.d 

- 

— 

»G 

7  E  vein 

18  a 

19  3 

23j 

— 

8P 

14  t 

- 

— 

80C 

.f 

1.1 

20  ^ 

J4f 

— 

{{541-59. 

464-9. 

495. 

514. 

525. 

ifl»J    i 


fiJi*  _f-4' 


126 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


1  '. 


594.  The  vowel  writing  forms  are  as  follows.  No.  2,  an  t  wide  below,  with  the  loop  of 
c  added  separately;  or,  a  figure  1  with  e  added  against  it,  being  Mr.  Graham's  letter  for 
the  vowel  of  her.  The  more  open  b  of  urn,  if  required,  to  be  similarly  made  of  le;  or 
like  B,  by  beginning  with  the  top  hook,  then  forming  the  loop  and  finishing  the  base. 
No.  3,  Greek  a  made  by  commencing  with  the  top  of  i,  then  curving  down  towards  the 
left,  forming  the  circle,  and  finishing  the  end  of  the  i; — or,  making  a  character  (<a)  like 
*&'  without  the  upper  loop.  No.  4,  when  not  satisfactorily  made,  may  have  the  circum- 
flex C)  placed  over  it.  No.  8,  like  i,  but  running  into  (J  below;  it  is  not  to  be  dotted 
unless  to  prevent  obscurity.  No  9,  the  common  i,  a  bad  letter,  because  it  forms  part  of 
u,  and  requires  a  dot,  but  not  in  print.  A  good  script  form  is  a  desideratum.  No.  10, 
like  a  with  a  break  to  the  left  in  the  middle  of  the  t  part; — or,  with  the  t  made  straight, 
and  a  tail  thrown  back  into  the  o,  as  t  is  sometimes  made  without  lifting  the  pen.  The 
latter  is  Mr.  Graham's  a  in  at.     No.  11,  a  with  an  inward  break  on  the  left  of  the  o. 

595.  The  consonant  writing  forms  are  as  follows.  No.  2,  the  common  v.  No.  1,  the 
same  dotted,  or  «  to  avoid  the  marking.  No.  3,  a  straight  line  running  into  a  curve  (J 
continued  up  and  ending  like  v,  unless  appropriated  in  some  language.  No.  3,  5,  22,  27, 
may  have  the  surd  mark  omitted,  but  in  writing  only.  No.  7,  a  t?  with  a  break  towardo 
the  right,  in  the  middle  of  the  descending  stem.  No.  17,  as  printed,  or  the  form  of  r 
made  with  the  ascending  stroke  continued  into  (")  a  short  quantity  mark,  and  ending 
with  t.  (This  would  have  formed  a  good  character  for  i.)  No.  18,  r  with  the  stem 
running  below  the  line.  No.  23,  we  use  Mr.  Ellis's  character,  a  line  (/)  continuing  into 
an  inverted  script  hox  y.  No.  24,  a  long  script  s.  No.  25,  like  y  with  two  dots,  or,  to 
avoid  these,  the  tail  may  be  turned  to  the  right. 

596.  Observe  that,  as  in  English,  the  coalescents  No.  1  and  25  are  never  initial,  and 
always  follow  vowels;  they  may  be  represented  by  v  and  j,  but  only  in  writing.  §173; 
Rule  1,  2,  §47,  56. 

597.  The  different  order  given  to  the  alphabetic  characters  is  a  great  barrier  to  the  use 
of  dictionaries,  as  in  those  of  Hebrew,  Russian,  and  Sanscrit.  It  is  even  inconvenient  to 
use  Greek  and  Latin  lexicons  at  the  same  time,  or  Danish  and  German.  Thus  in  Danish 
and  Swedish,  6,  &c.,  follow  z,  so  that  Dan.  boelte  (belt)  follows  bytte  (booty;)  and  Sw. 
dack  (deck,)  and  dod  (death)  come  after  dum  (dull,)  and  dyr  (dear.) 

598.  The  attempts  to  arrange  the  alplwhet  in  physiological  order  have  not  been  satis- 
factory; in  fact,  it  cannot  be  done  in  a  single  series,  and  would  be  more  inconvenient  than 
useful  in  dictionaries.  We  therefore  interpolate  the  new  English  letters  among  those  of 
the  Latin  alphabet.     This  gives  the  series — 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


127 


599. 


ft 

A 

A 

a' 

d 

b           C 

d 

e 

9 

t 

■»' 

9 

f           G 

h 

t 

>   '■ 

j 

J 

J 

1 

m  m  n 

r 

0 

p    r    T 

r 

8       2      3 

rf 

3 

r    J    1 

a    t 

tt 

u 

1 

V 

V 

% 

COLLOQUIAL  ENGLISH. 

600.  The  fdlovoing  example  is  transliterated  from  one  given  by  Ellis,  (Essentials,  p.  104,) 
being  his  translation  of  a  passage  from  Pott's  Etymologic  Researches,  and  printed  here 
without  any  perversion  of  tJte  powers  of  the  Latin  alphabet. 

601.  For  convenience  of  printing  in  this  version  we  use  J  for  the  more  anterior  j ,  b  for 
a,  r  undotted  (§  501,)  U  for  U,  and  j,  v,  for  the  coalescents;  and  although  J,  j,  are  identic, 
J  is  preferred  in  certain  positions  when  printed,  to  increase  the  distinctness. 

602. 

The  vritten  and  printed  representation  of  the  sounds  of  language  by  means 
a«         ritn      end     printed  rep^iaenteran    ol     wa    sAvndj    at    UfGVidj  bAJ      min3 

of      characters      which     are    insufficient      both    in      kind      and    number,     and    which    must    therefore 

OE  CA'xactTa,  "vvir  ar  insBft'rant,  boi  in  cAJnd  and  n^'mbx,  and  v  vitr  mBst   atxfor 

be       combined     or  modified      if    we    would    give    a    graphical        syrabolisation      of 

bi  cBmbAJnd  at  [§  403,  7,  8,]  modafAJd  if  vi    vud    gie   b    Grificl    simbl'iaeran  afc 

the  phonetic    elements    with    only    some    degree    of    exactness    and    convenience,    has    been,      from 

OB  fonetlc  ilamants  via  onli  SBm  diGxi   aE  eGsictnes  and  CBnEinjans,  hjis  bin,    frum 

all  time,     for     nations    as    well    as       individuals,                                        linguisiical        students         not 

nl  tAJm,fnT  n^rana  aa  vel  a?  indaEidJual?  [indaEidjal]  It/GVisticl  »tjudnts  nbt 
excepted,  one  of  the  most  necessary  and  one  of  the  most  difficult  of  problems,  and  has 
£C8iptad,  VBU  Qh  QB  most  nesasari  and  VBn  aE  av  most  dificalt  oe  prbblama,  and  hxa 
consequently  scarcely  ever  been  happily  solved.  Let  this  teach  us  that  the  invention 
cDnsicvantli  sce'rHli  ehv  bin  hipali  salEd.  let  ais  titr  us  OBt  oBinEgnran 
of      writing,    the    greatest    and    most    important    invention    which    the    human    mind  has 

QB    TAJtij',    QB    Gretast  n  most  impn-'rtnt  inE^nran  vvitraBJJU  man  mAJnd[m8ond]hA3 

ever    made,    and    which,    as    it    indeed    almost    exceeds    its    strength,  has    been      often 

iEu  raed,    and  "vvitf,  jl3  it   indid  nlmost  ecsid  its    strtj-?     [stren??]     h^a  bin    ri'Tn 

and    not     unjustly     attributed      to    the    gods;    like    the      organism    of    a    state,      at        once 
[ofn]  and  n&t  BndjB'stlt  itn  bratad  tB  as  Gn-d?;  Iajc  ob  orGanum  aE  b    stet,    it    vBns 

simple    and    complex,     is    not     the     work    of  individuals        but    of        centuries        perhaps         of 

Bt'mpl  an  ctiraplecs,  is  not  db    vbtc  aE     indaEi'djuals  hot  aE  sint"}  j  Bxia  paxhips    aE 

thousands    of    years.  '    '""  "* 

lATsnda  aE  Jir^. 


128 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


y': 


603.  This  upecimen  has  suggested  to  ua  the  probability  that  three  kinds  of  r  will  confuse 
many  writers,  so  that  practically  *r'  initial,  and  'r'  will  be  sufficient;  but  if  *r'  is  re- 
stricted to  a  single  tap  of  the  tongue  (§  501,)  it  should  have  a  superior  dot — neglected 
here,  from  the  difficulty  of  printing  it. 

604.  We  at  first  wrote  'students'  with  'a,'  then  excluded  it,  and  we  changed  the  second 
vowel  of  *  individual'  from  t  to  a,  although  we  use  i  in  our  own  speech,  from  heterotypic 
influences,  as  we  believe.  We  think  the  cases  rare,  where  the  same  vowel  occurs  thrice 
in  the  same  word.     It  seems  contrary  to  the  laws  of  English. 

605.  We  had  written  'representation'  without  a  vowel  in  -tion, — and  'invention'  with 
it,  but  finding  a  vowel  aperture  to  be  made,  we  wrote  9,  which  is  correctly  placed  in  pro- 
blem, convenience,  greatest,  exactness, — but  is  it  not  8?  in  human,  and  difficult.  We  think 
not.  Nevertheless,  a  difficulty  in  discriminating  them  may  require  b  to  be  used  for  both, 
in  the  one  case  (a)  dotting  it  beneath.    At  first  we  assigned  b  to  organism,  then  a. 

006.  The  words  'therefore'  and  'scarcely,'  in  which  the  open  e  of  th^re  is  shortened 

(as  indicated  by  the  acute  accentual,)  without  closing  to  s — may  really  require  the  use  of 

'e,'§  385-90. 

607.  FAVST,  '  '       '     '    ' 

'translated  by  Emma  Stanwick.'     Read  n,  i,  e,  o,\  long,  unless  otherwise  marked;  and 

t),  TJ,  I,',  short. 

Thou    full-orb'd     moon !      Would    thou    wcrt    gazing    now, 
QAV    ful-nrbd'  mu'n !  vud      oa'v  vurt  GesiG,  uav. 

For  the    last     time      upon      my    troubled    brow!  f 

:«*        fnr[§403]aB    last  tAjm  vpb'n  mi  tr^'bld    brAv!  *    t  ,  *    v- 

Beside      this  desk,     at    midnight,     seated  here, 
bisAjd  ais  disc',  it  mi'dnadt,  sited  hir,     ,  ,  .., 

c.      Oft   have    I    watch'd  to    hail   thy  soothing  beam ;     ■  ,    ^^ 

.    !.    nft  hiE  sd  vQ'trt  tB  hel  aae  siiair  brm; 

Then,  pensive    friend,     thou    cam'st,     my    soul  to    cheer; 
aen,  pinsit  frind',  qav  cemst',  mi  sol  tu  trlr; 
;.:       Shedding  o'ei  book     and  scrolls     thy  silv'ry     gleam. 
i         fidir      or  bifcs  nd  scroU  Dae  si'Ieti  Glim. 

O  that  I     could,  in    thy    beloved        light, 

o  aet  OB  cu'd,  in  aae'  bilB'tad"  lae't, 
Now    wander     freely  on    some  Alpine    height; 
nA'v  vandr  frill  bn  sym  i'lpm  hsBt; 

Could  I      round      mountain       caves  with  spirits       ride, 
cud  Aj  TAvnd  mA'vntan  ceEs  via  spirats  rAJd, 


608. 
609. 


,'..^^1- 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPUY. 


129 


se 
e- 


In    thy    mild         radiance      o'er     the  meadows  glide, 
in  aaj  majld'"  redjans  o..r*  av  midas    clajd, 
And    purged       from      knowledge-fumes  my   strength   renew, 
and  pu'rdjd  frvm  nb'lidj-fjuma  mi  sixin.   rinju', 

Bathing  ray    spirit        in     thy    healing  dew. 

beaif   nil  gpi'rat  m  qaj  LiUr    dju'. 

*'or'  in  line  6. 


GERMAN. 

610.  TJie  iiexi  is  the  original  of  the  preceding  example,  which  we  retransliterate  into 
German  from  Rapp's  phonetic  version  (4,  92.)  We  follow  Rapp's  pronunciation,  except 
that  he  uses  a  alone,  for  our  a  and  a.  Had  the  phonetic  version  been  our  own,  w^e  would 
have  put  'mondan'  in  the  first  line,  and  'Jetstan'  in  the  second.  The  syllables  without 
vowels  are  our  own.    Read  u,  a,  short. 


0  s&hest  du  voller  monden-scbein, 

o  aest    du[tu?]fblar  monden-fAJn, 
0  might  you  look  full      moonshine 

Zum         letzten    mal    auf     meine      pein, 
tsu  ..m  k  tsten  mal  Avf  mAJne  pAJn, 
for    the  last         time  on      my         pain, 
Den  ich  so  manche   mitter-nacht 
den  iq  so  mAnqe  mitr-nAct  [nA;ft] 
that  I     80  often        midnight 

An  diesen    pult    heran-gewacht; 
vn  diaam  pult  hcrA'n-OeBAct; 
at     this        desk    here        watched; 

dann   Uber    bUohern     und  papier, 

dAn  y~br  by'qrn   und[unt?]pApir, 
then    over    books         and  paper, 

TrUb-sel'gcr       freund    erschienst  du[tu?]mir! 
try"b-3el..Sar  fr&jnd  arrinst    du        mir! 
sad  friend     shine  you  to  me. 


Ach  konnt'    ich  doch  auf    berges-hohen 

AC    cH~nt"  iQ  doc  Avf  btrsas-hnn 

0       could      I     but     on      mountain-height 
In   dcincm       lieben  lichte    gehen, 
m  dAJnam  liben  li'qte  cen 
in    your  loved    light     go 

Urn      bergcs       hSble    mit    geistern     schweben, 

um    bergas  ha"le  mit  GAJstrn  pBebn, 
round  mountain  caves     with  spirits       hover 

Auf  wiesen      in   deinem       diimmer  weben, 
A'vf  iiaen     m  dAJnam  d^mr    Beb^n, 
over  meadows  in   your  radiance  float 

Yon  allem     wissens-qualm      entladen 
fon  A'lam  iisens-c^Alm  cntladsn 
from  all         knowledge-vapor  unburdened 

In   deinem       thau    gesund       mich  baden! 
in  dAjnam  tA'"v.  Gesu'nd  miQ  bad*n ! 
in    your  dew    salubrious,  nie      bathe. 


•  I 


WESTERWALDIAN. 

612.  TJie  following  is  the  first  verse  of  a  popular  poem  in  the  German  dialect  of  the 
Westerwald  district  on  the  east  side  of  the  Rhein.  It  is  given  in  K.  Ch.  L.  Schmidt's 
Westerwaldisches  Idiotikon,  (Hadamar,  1800,)  under  the  title — Das  Hotzel-Mous-Lied, 
oder  Lob  der  Hotzeln.     A  hotzel  {hufzel  in  Pennsylvania,)  is  a  dried  apple,  pear,  or  peach, 


130 


ANALYTIC   ORTHOGRAPHY. 


.i 


1  f 


especially  if  dried  entire,  and  moua  in  their  cooked  condition.  The  first  line  of  the  origi- 
nal stands — 

Nu  ha  n'  eich  all  mein  Lebclang — 

where  n'  seems  to  be  a  fulcrum  to  prevent  the  concurrence  of  two  vowels.  The  i  of  ich 
(  /)  will  be  observed  to  be  diphthongal,  as  in  English ;  and,  in  fact,  most  of  the  shades  of 
English  pronunciation  are  present  in  the  idiotic  forms  of  German  and  its  cognates. 


613. 


Da"s  hotsl 

mus. 

nu    hb    -n-     AJQ     a"1 
now   have              I           all 

raw  i 

my 

le'balAf 

life-long 

nAVt    b^sars    a"s 
naught    better       as 

hotsln 

'hootals' 

g£sa, 
eaten, 

'b5n         ..Q     ter    en,     het'..  [hti]     da    'ber  ['^or]     ajq  crAYc, 
when  (wann)  I     of-it     none    had,  then     were  (subjnct.)  I       sick, 

'b5n        ir    ot    reqt  [rest]     'bait     'bisa 
if  (tcewn)   you    it!     right  would    know. 

oarapta    mur..n    an    SAvrorAvt  * 

grated  carrot         an'      saurkraut 


A. .A, 


as 

A'c           no'c  ^5*"^     ibas 

[ipas] 

GUS 

is 

eke(a«c7t)   yet 

something  (etwa») 

good 

doc 

A'ct    -n-    AJq 

dAf 

crA"         bR 

DAVt 

though 

regard            I 

that 

quite  (gar)  as 

naught, 

an    (sa 

hotsl 

mus. 

an'     eat 

dried-fruil 

i    mush. 

FRENCH. 

614.  The  following  table  shows  the  discrepancy  of  opinion  among  the  French,  upon  the 
value  of  their  vowels  when  compared  with  English  standards.  The  first  column  contains 
the  French  examples,  and  the  others  the  words  supposed  to  contain  the  English  equivalents. 


Le  Brethon, 

Bolmar, 

Value, 

Picot, 

PantoUon. 

patte 

pat 

fat 

add 

at 

•    •    •     • 

pate 

pall 

arm 

far 

father 

arm 

b^tte 

bet 

fate 

gate 

fate 

ale 

bete 

bear 

where 

get 

there 

dare 

hotte 

hot 

not 

no,  nor 

nor,  over      .... 

hote 

hope 

more 

nor 

«      t< 

old 

616.  The  older  alphabets  are  not  worth  quoting.    In  the  Miscellaneous  Works  of  Wm. 
Marsden,  F.  R.  S.,  there  is  a  paper  On  a  Conventional  Roman  Alphabet,  where  a  is  pro- 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


181 


gi- 


icb 
of 


the 
ins 
Its. 


m. 
re- 


posed for  the  English  and  French — fall,  male;  a — sad,  far;  a — manner;  e — It.  vero, 
Ger.  lesen,  Fr.  cher;  e — It.  nello,  Ger.  bett;  e — Fr.  pres;  i — Fr.  long  i;  i — the  same 
short;  (a  correct  feature;)  i — sit.  It.  piccolo,  Fr.  quitter;  6 — glow;  o — motive,  (a  correct 
view;)  6 — not.  It.  dotto;  u — Ger.  and  Ital. ;  u — but,  "In  high  German  it  is  denoted 
by  ii  in  fur." — au,  out. 

616.  TJie  example  following  is  nearly  a  transliteration  of  that  of  Mr.  Ellis  (Univ.  Writ., 
p.  21,)  whose  pauethnic  notation  we  consider  the  best  among  the  several  modes  proposed 
by  him,  and  which  the  want  of  type  alone  prevents  us  from  quoting.  He  indicates  long 
vowels  by  a  repetition  of  their  character,  which  makes  the  sign  of  quantity  heterogeneous 
(now  0,  now  e,)  and  too  conspicuous ;  nevertheless  his  palaeotype  admits  of  a  high  degree 
of  minuteness. 

617.  We  use  Jiere  tJw  small  capital  i  for  the  long  sound,  and  the  dotted  i  for  the  short 
one.  The  elided  e  is  sometimes  represented  by  two  dots.  The  e  of  de,  le,  se,  we  write 
with  the  vowel  of  up  (perhaps  incorrectly,)  and  using  (u)  for  it.  For  convenience  in 
printing,  we  use  o  for  the  long  and  o  for  the  short  sound,  §412.  A  period  point  before 
an  initial  indicates  a  capital  letter — capitals,  however,  are  no  part  of  language. 


Calypso         ne        pouvait        se 

CA'lipso"  n..      puis         s.. 

elle     se     trouvait    malheurcuse 

el      sa"  truLs     mA^lu'ra^s 
lea    nymphes    qui    la    servaient 
le     ni,f         ci     1a  serEe 
gazons       fleuris      dont 

ga"3o<  flu^ri     dat 

d^bria    d'ua    navire    qui 
d  «"  nA^Eir  ci 

dcartdes        i^k 

ecA^rte"    sa" 


debri 


rainea 
TXms 

flottant 
flO^'tA. 


618,619. 

consoler        du        depart        d'Ulysse.         DaDS        su  duuleur, 

CO  "so"le    dy"    depA'r    d..  .y"lis.     dA"        sa"      dular  '^^^'^ 

d'etre       immortelle.     Sa     grotte     ne       resoDoait     plus     de    son     chant: 
detr    imortel.      sa  orot'    nvT    reso^ne    ply"  d    so^      fA,": 

n'osaient    lui     parler.     Elle     ae     promenait    aouvcnt     scale       sur       les 
nOse        ly"i  pArle.  el      sa"  promne    sula,     sa^l     sy^r    Is 

son     ile....      Tout-a-coup     ell     appcr^ut 

so.n  il.... 
bancs     de 

bA;    d 

gouveruail, 


tut  a"  CU      el 


Ics 
le 


A  persy 

rameurs     mis     en     pieces, 
rA^raar  mis  a"    pies, 

un     m&t     des       cordages 


des 
de 


GUEernA^il)  <"***"   a,    rax    de     cordA^j 


un      printemps      eternel     bordait 
u      prjL"tA"3    eternel  bo^rde 

Tcnait    de    fairo     naufrage,     des 
Ene      d    fsr    no^frA'j,  de 

et    Ik       sur        le    sable,      un 
e     1a"    sy"r    1b  sA^b^l,   b, 

sur       la        c6te 
sy"r  Ia"    co't. 

Translation,  in  French  orthography,  from  two  French  Treatises  on  English. 

620.  Calypso  koud  not  bi  konforted  for  thi  dipartieur  ov  Youlysses.  In  heur  grif  shi 
filt  [faound  heurs61f]  eunhappy  ete  (§378)  biing  immortal.  Heur  groto  no  longher 
rizaounded  ouith  heur  song.  Thi  nymphs  hou  served  h§r  derd  not  spik  tou  heur.  Shi 
of^n  ouakt  alone  on  the  flaouri  (§129)  teurf,  ouith  houitch  6n  iternal  spring  covered  heur 
ailand On  &  seudden  shi  persivd  thi  fraghm^nts  of  e  v<^s8el  that  had  djeust  binn 


132 


ANALTTIO  ORTHOORAPHT. 


T^kM,  To6n  b6ntcbgs  broken  in  pissSs,  on  skattgrdd  hir  end  th6r  on  thi  sand,  6  reuddSr, 
e  mast  6nd  kord^dje  floting  on  thi  shore. — P.  Y.  de  Seprh. 

621 .  The  next  ia  based  on  Rapp'a  example  (3,  141-2,)  from  Moli^re's  Tartuffe,  act  1,  sc. 
6,  the  orthography  of  the  original  being  our  own. 

Instniit    par    son    gtrfon    qui    dans    tout    rimitait 
A.Btry"i  pAr  so,    OArso,  ci     dA,    tu     1  imite 

et    de    son    indigence    et    de    ce    qn'il    ^tait, 
3    d    80,    A,dijA,8    e    do  8    c  il   Stf, 

je    lai        fesait    des    dons    maia  areo    modestie 

j«  ly"i     &«      de    do,     me  ^*"'>      albc  modesti 

il    me    voulait    toujours    en    rendre    nne    partie. 
il   ma  Lule      trjfur     a,    rA,dr    y^n  pA'rti. 

o'est    trop,    me    disait-il,    o'est    trop    de    la    moiti^, 
B   e   tro      mB  diaetil,  8   e    tro    d     Ia  myAtiS, 

je    ne    m^rite    pas    de    vnns    faire    piti4. 
JB   n    merit  pA"  da  WJ     fer     pitiS 

et    qnand    je    refusais    de    le    vouloir    reprendre, 
e    CA,      j»   rfy'ae    dv  1     Eul^Ar  rprA,dr 

auz    paavrea,    k    mes    yenz,    il    allait    le    r^pandre. 


po"Er,     a"  me   ju"      il  Ale     1b  r6pA,dr 

me  le    fit     retirer 

mv  I     fi    rtire 

tout  semble    y     proap^rer. 

tu  SA,bl    i     prospSre. 


enfin    le    oiel    ches    moi 
i,fA,  1b  8jel  re"     mvA 

et    depuis        oe    terns    Ik 
e    dBpy'i    s    tA,     Ia" 


622.  Boih  Bapp  and  Ellis  write  French  nasal  in  "on  the  basis  of  the  vowel  of  e&&,  the 
Polbh  e,  in  pje.to  (five,)  which  is  concurrent  with  i.,  "in  Wyandot.  Here  the  practice  of 
Mr.  Ellis  is  based  upon  French  opinion  rather  than  upon  his  own  ear,  as  he  has  informed  us. 

623.  Most  of  (he  suooeeding  examples  were  taken  before  we  had  distinguished  a  from  b, 
and  the  open  u  frcm  the  close  u,  so  that  the  one  may  often  stand  for  the  other. 


CHEROKEE. 

624.  The  Lord's  Frayer,  the  native  version.     Bead  n  in /all,  i  in  pit,  b  dose  and  shorty 
in  up. 

'noitnta         "  ofilB.latt-        »hehi'        « oalB,cti5e{ju;  '  ceseti'       •  tets&txiB.i'. 

onr-father            (in)  heaven           who  dwellat    honored  be                    thy  name, 

'  tsiOB,vijuhi'  •  cesB.'  '  vrcftnSnu-cm'.  "  &fint  "  Slnhi  "  vintflTlijBta  "  hitinnte-sOB/i' 

thon-king             being      let-appear.                   here  let  be  done            thy  will 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


133 


«r, 


8C. 


the 
I  of 

U8. 


'«  nahsci'ja        '*  calti "lati'        '•  tsin'ca'Ij,stiha.     "  nltatnte'cvlsti/    '•  xica'ljstaJV.ti' 
as  it  is  (in)  heaTcn  done.  daily  our  food 

"  sci'u/sv  "cnhi'  "  i-ca.  "ticesciB~siovo"n&/  "tescviu'cua'  "nahscija  "  tsiticajn'tsinnelm', 

givo  U8         this  day.        aud  forgivo  us  our  debts  (")  as  we  forgivo 

'"  tsntsituci',         ^'&U  "cle'sti'        *»u~tac5'lijstiji'  'o  vitbscljatinu.'stanti.oi', 

those  vho  owe  us,       and  not  in  the  way  of  trial  lead  us, 

"  sciju-taliscesticvo'scini'    "uja'  "cesB/i'.    «« tsti'stselicahje'nt)' "  tscctj/vtju-hi  "Cssb/V 
but  deliver  us  from  (the)  evil        that  is.  for  thine  king  (^)  being.is 

"  t8a"llini*citi'    "ali  »»cesB,i'    " e-tsdB,/c"vtiju'    «ale    "cssb/    "  nioahiltt/i'    "iiasci' 
strong  and      the-being    honored  and        the-being    always  so 

**  vinia"lsta. 

(")  let  it  be.  ' 

625.  This  is  the  pronunciation  and  rendering  of  the  Eev.  Stephen  Foreman,  a  native. 
The  final  of »,  ",  &c.  is  not  a  coalescent.  The  accent  in  '  may  be  erroneous — see  ".  The 
final  of  "  is  probably  i.    It  seems  ('•,  ",)  that  flat  t,  c,  do  not  associate  with  e. 

626.  The  whispered  vowel  in  ",  ",  ",  should  probably  be  omitted  as  an  error  of  the 
alphabet  (§  589,)  as  in  No.  «.  The  vowel  b  in  »» is  nasal,  and  whispered,  being  between 
surds.     The  final  syllable  of  "  means  and,  like  Latin  -qye. 

627.  The  final  syllable  of  ••  would  be  omitted  if  not  followed  by  a  stop;  and  if  "  ended 
the  sentence  (the  verb  in  the  three  last  letters  of  **  being  implied,  or  given  in  another 
place,)  it  would  have  a  final  accented  i.  This  peculiarity  appears  in  »  and  ".  In  ■<  the 
final  hjend'  means  ybr;  and  in  ^  tsn  means  tJiose. 

628.  We  have  taken  but  one  liberty  with  our  manuscript,  namely,  in  making  » 
correspond  with  "  on  the  authority  of  the  version  in  Gouraud.  We  had  written  " 
'^naskija,"  failing  to  catch  the  h  heard  in  "  (if  it  was  sounded,)  and  also  the  flat  sound 
of  cay.  At  that  period  we  used  Je,  and  a  dot  above  for  the  short  quantity,  a  good  enough 
mode,  but  difficult  to  print. 


itt, 


WYANDOT    (=Vt)NDbT.)  ' 

629.  The  Lord's  Prayer,  the  notation  the  same  as  the  preceding. 

scvB">isti     'ja'r6,nJa>aj6    » i;g8ta'CE>';      *  tuji  hti    *  de    •  f£finda>-';    '  tu-tave 
our  father  heaven in  tbou-inhabitest      righteous        thy        name.  let-it-come 

•  saxo.njameh.    »  avatTivaJTit'      '»  de     "  saTivb^f*'    "  o'm^tsa>aj£     "  tiju'hti     '*  de 
your  heaven.  let-it-be-aceoinplisht     thy        purpose  earth on  like-os 

18 


134 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


"  jar6,nJ,a>aje.    '•  tava'no.t   "da>atemi,ntaje   '*  macja>atanditS,hcvi.   "  sB8B>aclij6^r,h,e^ 

heaven in.  give-to-us  evcry-day         ...  our-Biiatenance.  forget-thou 

*>  ds    "  sBTiiB>ac6.ndih    "  tijov&rreha>     "  du    "nj,o;mB'>B"    "  o-cirijaVaco^ndih. 


nj,o;mB>B 
own 


sBTijB>ac6^ndih     "  tijov&rreha>     "  du 

our  breaking  thy  laws        as  we  do  *         our         own  law  breakers. 

"  tavb'hsarit    "to>omB'h    "  di    ''sti>B''h    *"  ta>atanJo'mB'htTatB"t    "  ducau'ht, 

lead  us  that  way  ...  not  to  be  beset  (by)  evil, 

^^  somi'.h    »de     **jaT6nja>aje    '*  ds    "  ja-vi'hrTa>'     *' tu'ndi'      "  du    ta'rai>*. 
thine  ...  (the)  heaven  and       (the)  power  and-likcwiso    the    glory. 


630.  This  version  was  composed  in  our  presence  (we  writing  it  down)  by  the  intelligent 
native  chief  of  the  Wyandots,  J.  M.  Armstrong.  Wyandot  is  an  Iroquois  language,  and 
thp  three  first  words  of  the  precedin«»  version  correspond  with  the  four — 

"Songwaniha  ne  karonghyage  tighsideron," 

as  given  in  the  Mohawk  'Common  Prayer,'  London.  1787,  p.  53.  Zeisberger  gives 
garochia  as  the  word  for  Jieaven,  in  the  Onondago  dialect.  No.  *•  *>  ^^  &c.,  have  the 
common  h.    The  o  seems  to  be  always  nasal,  and  in  number  "  it  is  probably  erroneous. 

631.  The  elements  in  the  language  are — i,  i,  e,  e,  i,  b,  a,  t>,  o^  u,  u, — v,  m,  (no  other 
labials,) — n,  d,  t,  t,  (no  ?,) — x  smooth,  s,  (no  z,)  r,  j, — j,  G,  c,  c,  ;^,  h,  >,  besides  nasal 
vowels,     u  is  used  for  a  short  sound  without  discriminating  it  from  u,  (§  623.) 

632.  u>ucjeTt~he      duVunda>''.     u'>unda>'    ju'>UJ,e>'      vo'ti^jo     hB"nda"rio'. 
it  is  straight  the-arrow.  arrow.  §486.      ground-squirrel  in-a-hole         lives. 

Gja> ara,  Niagara,  probably  from  cja>acd> ,  broken.    scn'> nta,  head.   cveujn>nta,  cicada. 

jU5>',  pigeon.    tsa>andu^sce,  Sandusky  (=at  the  waters.)     ilicesi,  Allegany.    ajnda>', 

bow.    hntrro,  rakoon.     jentso,  fish.     cv6se!>-',  fowl.     h6ta>-',  ear,  which  some  may 

consider  akin  to  o^Ci  o'roc*    nj?)teru>',  my  friend.   ^^  ^^^,    ' 


NADACO. 

633.  Orw  of  the  peculiaritiea  of  the  Nadaco  or  '  An-a-dah-has'  has  been  alluded  to  in 
§448.  Another  is  the  occurrence  of  the  vowel  u  or  n,  the  Latin  consonant  v,  and  the 
allied  coalescent  'v;  also,  i,  i,  j,  j.  We  heard  a  man  call  a  finger-ring  nace''8embe''-ca~s8*',* 
whilst  his  wife  called  it  nacesembetrahasB,  with  an  additional  syllable  ha.  See  the  word 
for  finger.  The  vowel  of  add  occurs  here,  and  a  final  vowel  is  often  whispered,  as  in 
eight  of  the  following  examples. 

*  Although  we  use  (')  for  short  accented  syllables,  and  Q)  for  long  ones,  the  accentual  leaning  towards  the 
co-accented  consonant,  yet  when  we  use  Q'^  together,  as  in  this  place,  the  syllable  is  to  be  considered  as  made  of 
ce^  and  not  of  £"s, — and  4'»  might  occur  also. 


ANALYTIC  ORTUOORAPUY. 


186 


dasbtp  crown 
trohotd,  hair 
tsahatau,  forehead 
tanoadaus  (not  tar-) 

cJieek 
birtu,  ear 
tsahav,  eye 
trabehetaT,  brow 
800,  nose 
tameso,  jaw 
adetp  tongue 
ate"'t9,  warm 


vacoho,  cJiin 
natseo,  neck 
behedavso,  shoulder 
nansh,  clavicle 
cor,  Jieart 
co's,  breast 
tsoto,  nipple 
sentd'hp,  wrist 
eeco,  palm 
sembeto,  Jinger 
sembssas,  thumb 
basoboto,  leg 


bided,  knee 
nahatoh,  ankle 
ha' 80,  foot 
nahcuha'v,  sole 
nastsoto,  heel 
nauoto,  toe 
nati,  wo7nan 
tanaois,  leech 
tA'nat',  gryllus 
etfi't',  toad 
Cabs on,  coat 
oantaso,  leggins 


Conavta/co,  hatchet 
nvc^oabriva,  pipe 
nacimpi,  beads 
tapit',  fan 
vai,  shoe 
ea^bav,  Aotwe 
cantaibf,  mirror 
cooe,  icater 
vatot',  ground 
aco^hoto,  cold 
ha'hat',  good. 


KANSA  (=C5nst).) 
634.  The  vowel  Y,  French  u,  is  found  here,  although  very  rare  in  the  aboriginal  lan- 
guages of  North  America.  In  our  examples  we  add  (in  parentheses)  the  Dacota  equiva- 
lents, but  placing  Riggs'  diacrits  after  instead  of  over  the  letters,  as  g*  (which  is  compared 
with  ghain,)  s',  English  sh;  h*,  *a  deep  surd  guttural;'  c',  Eng.  teJi;  z'  Eng.  dzh;  n,  as  in 
English  sing,  and  French  bon,  the  two  being  confounded  after  eighteen  years  study  by  a 
number  of  missionaries.     Probably  both  sounds  occur,  as  in  Kansa. 


ear. 


nota  (nog'e) 
eye,        iftate^/e"  (is'ta) 
brow,      Jftahifaba  (is'tah'e, 

eye-ridge.) 
mouth,    iha  (i) 
tongue,  jisse*  (c'ez'i) 
nose,      pah*  (pog'e) 
nostril,  poru're  (p6g*e-oh*d6- 

ka,  nose-hole.) 

*  Pronounce  each  s,  and  the  / 


forehead,  plessss  (it6) 
fan,  tcIlajB  (ic'adu) 

nonoba  (c'a^^duhupa, 

c'andi,  tobacco.) 

mohf  (minna) 

mB.rtjea'v 
leggins,     hy^/ba  (hu?iska) 
shirt,         5sc5'sc6ucjdo,cuda  {on- 

h'doh'da.) 


pipe, 

knife, 
vmrm 


CHiPPEWAT.     (otfibv^,  pi.  otnbv^G.) 
635.  ne^nepatrintc^W,  the  mole,  being  inic  for  onic,  an  arm,  his  arm  (ninic  my  arm, 
cinic  thy  arm,)  ne.patr,  wrong,  left,  opposite;  ne-  its  reduplication,  for  both  arms;   e  si', 
a  noun  suffix  of  the  animate  gender.    The  mole  then,  in  the  view  of  a  Chippeway,  is  the 


186 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPDY. 


animal  with  reversed  arnm,  the  right  one  being  apparently  on  ihe  left  shoulder,  because 
the  palms,  instead  of  facing  each  other,  are  exterior. 

630.  psjiGoGBji,  the  horse.  For  pcjiGOfCBjI;  from  psji'o  one,  Srcoj  hoof,  nail;  the 
siuijle-Jioo/ed,  or  solidungular  animal,  this  being  its  zoological  characteristic,  and  one  which 
very  few  Europeans  would  have  observed.  How  few,  for  example,  who  have  seen  the 
gnu  (=black,)  and  the  camel,  can  tell  whether  the  feet  are  solid  or  cleft.  The  Chippe- 
ways  name  an  elephant,  not  from  its  trunk,  but  from  its  straight  or  columnar  legs;  and 
a  sheep  from  its  '  ugly  hair,'  the  wool  striking  their  attention  unfavourably.  In  Bishop 
Baraga's  Dictionary  of  the  Otshipwe  Language,  Cincinnati,  1853,  the  word  for  Jiorae  (bebe- 
jij.oganji,)  has  an  initial  reduplication,  like  that  for  mole.  In  Choctaw,  a  horse  is  I'soba, 
from  iBi  deer,  hu'lba  resemblance.  In  Nadaco,  it  is  the  Mexican  Spanish  cubajo,  which 
varies  to  cavaru*  (Eng.  w,  trilled  r,)  in  Waco.  Similarly,  in  Penobscot  (here  t  for  tuc'v 
means  river,  compare  Aroostook,)  the  English  name  with  its  article,  appear  as  D.hb.s;  and 
ahahsB,  and  a  buffalo  as  babulo. 

637.  mm  (min,  i  being  used  for  I,)  huckleberry,  pi.  minen,  mi^n^,s,  thorn-apple.  Datura 
stramonium;  es,  dimin.  mini'  a  round  sore,  mini's  an  island,  mirimi'n,  apple,  (great  berry,) 
written  mishimin  by  Baraga,  miti'Gvnb,  a  bow,  because  difficult,  (ovnb,)  to  draw  or  bend; 
nin  vnb,  nivab,  I  see;  vabefc,  to-morrow  (the  time  of  being  light,)  viGivnm,  a  hut,  from 
sheltering,  in  Lenape — vicvbm.  ,  '         »    ■        •  »  /r    •  ,  ,t 

638.  The  musTcalcmge  or  great  pike  of  the  lakes,  is  in  Chippeway  morcinojs.,  from  mor- 
great,  (compare  Mich-igan,  Missi-sippi,)  cmo  js',  pike,  and  cinu'rciji  is  any  long-snouted 
animal,  as  a  hog.  Compare  j>i<7  Kn^peak,  pike.  vB'ju'rc,  muskrat,  Bjarci',  mud.  afcibvGcnn, 
(place  of  artichokes,)  Cheboygan,  the  orthography  of  which  is  French.  mBrciG,  swamp, 
whence  Maskegon.  min'-sibi'  great  river,  atntamo^,  the  red  squirrel,  Sciurus  hudsonius, 
because  it  descends  trees  head  foremost.  ase'nB^Go,  grey  squirrel,  that  sticks  fast,  or  close, 
(to  a  limb.) 

639.  Tfie poll/synthetic  structure  of  the  Vesperian  languages  is  widely  spread.    In  Aztec, 

according  to  Humboldt  (Vues  des  Cordilleres,  p.  316,)  a  kiss  is  tetennamiquilizUi,  and  pain 

is  tetlayhiouiltiliztli.    Condamine  (Pinkerton,  xiv.  225)  thus  speaks  of  the  Tam^oa  of  South 

America.     ''The  language  of  this  people  is  indescribably  difficult,  and  their  enunciation 

still  more  extraordinary  than  their  language.    They  draw  their  breath  in  speaking  in 

such  a  manner  that  the  sound  of  scarcely  one  vowel  can  be  distinguished.     They  have 

words  which,  to  describe,  and  then  but  imperfectly,  would  require  at  least  nine  or  ten 

syllables,  though,  as  pronounced  by  them,  they  seem  to  consist  of  but  three  or  four 

*  These  forms  are  sufficiently  like  the  West  African  Gr^bo  c^boso  (horse,)  to  suggest  an  identity  of  origin. 
But  this  is  from  cd  (to  die,)  in  this  manner.  The  peculiarity  of  the  white  race  iu  Africa  is  to  die  in  a  short  time, 
hence  c6bd  dying  kind,  is  the  word  for  a  white  man ;  so  is  lizard,  so  that  a  horse  is  considered  the  '  white  man's  lizard 


ANALYTIC  ORTUOGHAPHY. 


»T 


Poeftarorinrournar,  signifies  the  number  three  in  this  tongue :  happily  for  those  who  have 
transactions  with  them,  their'  arithmetic  goes  no  farther."*     ' 

640.  Pitchlin,  the  intelligent  chief  of  the  Choctaws,  gave  us  the  etymology  of  the 
Choctaw  (=trt)'tftf)  word  fo'nobi  (iron-wood,  Ostrya  viroinica.)  It  is  for  io'norto.bi 
(with  all  the  syllables  short,  the  third  with  the  secondary  accent,)  contracted  from 
iononrtubi,  that  with  which  kill  buffalo,  (as  a  club,  arrow,  &c.,)  their  bows  being  made  of 
this  wood,    io'ner  huffitlo;  ut  that  with  which;  o'bi  kill. 


GREEK. 

641.  m2*nin  a>jde  ^e\k  pS|lsia;de'o  &Z»lls*6s  .     .> .  v    ^  . 
6'vlomi[nsn,  hs]  myrf..  &|;KajdJ8  I  aloe"  ^jS^Scc. — Tliad,  I.  1,2. 

The  xext  is  from  1  Corinthians  xiii.  1,  2,  being  the  passage  transliterated  by  Mr.  Ellis.  We 
preserve  the  accents,  t9,  and  ;f. 

642.  can  tajs  Glossajs  ton  anSro'pon  lalo  caj  ton  afOflon,  ilGapsn  de"  mS'  e'Kp,  GicSna 
;falc6"s  e^on,  e'cy'mbtllon  alula^on.— caj  e&'n  e'xo  pro'pStejun,  caj  fjdo  ta,  mysts'ria 
pu'uta,  caj  pasan  ten  Gnosin;  caj  can  £'^0  pasfm  tgn  pistin  hu'ste  o'rg  me'>istanrjn, 
uGapsn  di  ms  e'jfo,  6 v«?6n  sjmi. 

ITALIAN.  .      ,  . 

THE  lord's  i'rayer.  t 

643.  padre  nostrw" ce  eel  nel  trls'll,  sia  santificata>~ II  n«»me  tiiw",  hifan, II ren},*"'  tiiw"; 
sia  fatta  Ifi  L(u''Ia7nta  tiiS,  ca>me  in  trlsloi"  ccwsi  In  tirru;  dattrl  [give  thou]  oddji  II  nostra 
p^ne  cvw'tldl^nw",  €  rlmettl  a  na»I  I  no'strl  debltl  siccwme  nwl  II  [for  them,  accus."] 
rlmettlamo;  a  no'strl  debltcoVl,  e  n«>"n  tf„  [us]  Indiirre  In  tentutslcone  ma  liberutrl  [-trl,  us] 
d..  al  male,  t  cwei  sia.  {amen.)       ■■'     -s—    ,     .    ...    ♦ 

LATIN. 

TBZ   lord's   FRATER. 

644.  pater  noster  cvl  es  in  cojlis;  safctificetur  nomen  tuu,.  a'dveniat  regnu,  tiiu,. 
fiat  voluntas  tua,  eicut  in  cojlo,  et  in  terra,  pane,  nostru,  supe'rsu'bstantiale,  [cvotldianu  J 
da  nobis  hodie.  et  dimitte  nobis  deblta  nostra,  sicut  et  nos  dimittimus  debltorlbus  nostrls. 

*"The  sounds  of  the  'Tinn^  language  can  scarcely  be  expressed  by  the  English  alphabet,  and  several  of  them 
are  absolutely  unpronounceable  by  an  Englishman.  In  my  attempts  to  form  a  vocabulary,  I  had  great  difficulty 
in  distinguishing  several  words  from  one  another  which  had  dissimilar  sounds  to  the  native  ear,  and  were  widely 
different  in  their  signification.  A  Dog-rib  or  Athabascan  appears,  to  one  unaccustomed  to  hear  the  language,  to 
be  stuttering.  [§551.]  Some  of  the  sounds  must  have  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Hottentot  cluck,  and  palatal 
and  guttural  syllables  abound  in  the  language.  Vocabularies  of  this  tongue  cannot  be  greatly  depended  upon,  as 
no  two  people  will  agree  on  the  orthography." — Richardson,  Arctic  Searching  Expedition,  chap.  xiii. 

f  This  word  cannot  be  spelt  with  the  English  alphabet,  although  every  element  is  Euglish,  the  vowel  being  that 
of  odd,  as  in  Kansa  (=cO'n3&.) 

%  As  pronounced  by  Mr.  P.  L.  Rosteri,  instructor  in  Italian  at  Florence.  :  -      m< 


188 


ANALTTIO  ORTHOORAPnT. 


ot  no  nus  inducus  In  tuntutl6ne,,  edd  libdra  nos  a  mdlu.    nu,  tuu,  est  r^gnQ,  lit  imperin,, 
ct  mugnlfTcontlu,  In  Hcmplt^rno. —  Gouraud,  pi.  12. 

045.  Our  variutiona  from  the  Latin  text  are  due  to  the  inconsistonclos  uf  Latin  ortho- 
graphy in  the  use  of  Q,  M,  U,  X, — and  E  both  as  a  coalcscent  and  a  vowel.  In  several 
cases  wo  mark  length  'by  position,'  where  the  vowel  is  naturally  short,  by  ().  We  omit 
the  coalescent  dots,  and  write  aj,  oj,  for  00,00. 

VIRGIL. 

646.  //}  the  following  example,  the  first  and  fourth  feet  of  the  first  line  must  have  no 
accent,  because  the  verse  has  the  rhythm  of  time,  the  ear  being  informed  by  the  accent 
of  the  fifth  and  sixth  feet,  that  the  measure  is  hexameter.  Vulnus,  at  the  end  of  the 
third  line,  has  its  time  made  up  by  the  consonant  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  line,  or  by 
a  comma  point.     Aeneid,  I,  84,  35,  36,  220. 


consp^ct 

they     {iho 


vies    e 
sc&rcc  were 

v^la  da  bant  lajt 

sailTng  in 


U 


81CU 


laj 

lys 


cum  jun.. 
whea        jii 


to      white- 

ajt^r 
no      h\ 


prajcipu  e 


now  chiefly 


plus 
the     pious 


frOm     siot 

I     et     spu  mas 
capt    wilTOB       their 

nu"*    Servians  sub 
wftys      h(kld|ing    her 
ajn^  as  nti/c 
rone  as  the 


tell 
shore 

sails 
ni6tal 


uns        m 

out  tn  th^ 


ajre        ru 
parting  the 

p^ctore 
woiind  in    re 
acrls     6 
fate  of  the 


altu, 
high  sea 

^bant — 
witters, 


vulnus — 
mimbranQe —  . 
rbntej— I.  220. 
active,  &o. 


647.  The  false  *  hexameters'  of  Southey,  Longfellow,  and  others,  together  with  our 
accentual  music,  crush  the  rhythmic  sense  which  Latin  verse  should  have  fostered,  and 
gives  us  the  barbarous  relish  for  the  rhythm  of  noise  which  rustics  exhibit  when  they 
think  their  step  in  the  dance  should  be  heard  as  well  as  seen  and  felt; — the  dance  (the 
ancient  chorus)  being  the  only  rhythm  of  time  we  are  acquainted  with. 

648.  The  last  Latin  line,  therefore,  strikes  the  modern  ear  as  a  five-foot  measure  of 
English  amphibrachs —  , ,. 

now  chiefly    the  pious    en^as,       the  fate  of 
orontes       and  also     of  amyc    and  ly'cus 
or  like  the  next,  in  English  dactyls — the  normal  form  as  recognised  in  our  music 
now    ' 


the  active 
bemoans  him— 


chiefly  the 
rontes  and 


pious  e 
also  of 


neas,  the 


fate  of  the 


amyc  and    l^cus       be 


active  o- 
moans  him. 


ANALYTIC  OBTnOORAPHY. 


IW 


GREBO    (§  351f«.) 

G49.  The  LonVs  Prayer  is  given  hero  from  the  dictation  of  a  native,  the  trannlation 
being  furnished  by  tlio  Right  Reverend  John  Payne,  KpiHcopal  Missionary  at  Cavalla. 
Nasal  and  stopt  vowels  (§  350)  are  very  common.  Vowels  unmarked,  as  to  quantity,  aro 
Bhort,  and  especially  so  when  stopt.     Wo  have  probably  not  marked  all  the  stopt  vowels. 


a      biia      mb,"      nu,     n« 
our   Father    tbuu        ho         art 


di      jQ,        na/ 

thoro  heaven,     thy 


mo. 


bo  mi'     mo/     va'     ci, 

they  m\M\  muko     theo        their    king,      for 

tcni,     o'      nl-di'     ne,    ju,         h,J,i 

as  they    do-thore    it        heaven,    give        us 

be'       p6/     amo,'     h,v,t,'so'f    co    a 
do  thou   put        us  forgiveoesa 


nj,e  ne. 
namo 

*wro 


bi      cii  ■  -fnp,         nj,6, '  bo ' 
let  it   have  huliiiess,    men 


JU,  


na,      "wro  be'     nu,f-di'       cunf)' 

thy        mind  (will)   let  it    be-dono-hcro    world 

amo,    nJ/.na.Jedo 
day 

bone,      cucvi'       a      ta  ieni 


mt), 
in 


for     our     conduct     wicked 


ni'no/   e'ne,diba'di,      no, 
this  food,  and 

a  nl.' 

wo  do 


a 

wo 


p6 
put 


nJ,o,no, 


na.e. 

lead 


amo/ 

us 


cmo,' 


m5, 


for 


thou 
nJ,6,ne 


o'      nl/  amo 

who-they        they     do  us 

tudo '  tu '       a  tld^ 

temptation        its  way 

teji '      CI, ' 
art  king 


bone,    ciicvi ' 

conduct   wicked 


Je 


ne, 
and 


a       -.,, 

their   glory 


c&'mo, 
have 


tr 

time 


bie' 
all. 


Its     account      as 

mo.'     hvtso't  Ji;      no      na, 
unto        forgiveness     also;     and       not 

be  ha      amo 

(you)  must    tako     us 

mO      ve'-te-J^'  ,X    no'      mb      minD/' 
thou     art-able-things,      and       thou      shalt 

amen. 


Jidi ' , 


in. 


ca 

but 


ca 

devil  from, 

de'  bie' 

things  all 


650.  In  tJie  following  examples,  when  the  languages  are  not  noted  by  parentheses,  as  in 
(Armenian,)  we  have  taken  them  directly  from  the  dictation  of  natives. 

*  This  •  IB  perhaps  nearer  to  ooze  than  to  awe,  §  418.    f  The  penult  vowel  is  more  open  tb  -i  it,  or  between 
this  and  eight.  §  801a.  ^  te,  things;  j    for. 


140 


AKALTTIO  ORTHOORAPHT. 


NUMERALS. 

651. 

652. 

653. 

654.              /. 

655. 

Mandic.        ' 

Danish. 

English. 

Saxon.           ^ 

German. 

'  sjtn 

^  in,  en 

Wan,  v5nf 

'  9jn             ^ 

^  Ajns 

''tfb^jr       "     ' 

*  tu,  to- 

■     .*tt^-7    •-          - 

^t:b^      *  ^ 

"^  tS  bAJ        ' 

^  7rir 

^  tn,  tfe,  -I 

^  in 

'drAJ       ^ 

»drAJ 

*  florlr 

*  f ira,  fife 

*  for 

*fa-jara   , 

*fir 

»fim 

'fern 

»fAJL             , 

'fa'jba      • 

'  fy-nf 

•"sees 

"sees 

'sics 

"  sisa 

"aces 

''  sJa"           ,;: 

^  sy%  siE     '  :• 

,.•  ^  setn 

^  si'bana  : 

^  aiban 

*  a'vhta* 

'  ota,  ote 

8et 

» a;cta 

» A-ct 

» nia 

®  ni,  nl 

•nAJn            i 

®  ni;Kana 

'  na'jn 

"  tia. 

"ti,tJ. 

"ten.           '- 

"tAJna.    '    - 

"  tBen. 

656. 

657. 

658. 

659. 

660. 

German. 

Ilemi^i. 

BeJ/ian.         '"• 

Valais.          '"' 

Fa/ai8. 

(Westerwald.) 

V 

(Leukerbad.) 

(Sitten.) 

^  ens 

M-en        ' 

""    ^  en          ; 

'':  *  Ajs 

^aJ8       ^ 

^  ts'be 

^i:hh       '     ' 

'  =^t;bet  ^"^; 

"  '^  ts  b^    ; 

'^  ts  bej 

nr3 

'dvAJ 

=>(!«              "^ 

"tn 

*fejr 

*ur 

-      *fir 

*  fin 

*  f  iri 

'  fimpf,  fa^nf 

'  EAJf 

.   »fA-jf 

» fifi,  ftmfi 

'  fufi 

'  sees 

•  368         ■ 

'  36S,  sea 

'  seen 

« se'cfJl 

^si'ba 

^  3eLn 

^  seLen,  seEen 

's^P^^        1%.    . 

^  si'bnl 

*  o6t  ««!•) 

"adt 

''   "act 

«&;cti 

«a;ctt|l 

'•noj 

'  neon 

'  neocn 

•  nipi 

» nini 

"  tsena. 

^Um. 

"tin.     : 

"  tsa;cni. 

"  tsA-^tnl. 

a?  ■"•: 


J.; 


*  The  slight  &  was  denied  by  the  speaker. 

f  Pronunoiatioc  of  Mr.  Kean,  Princesses'  Theatre,  London,  1859. 

j  As  we  have  used  different  notations  at  different  times,  we  are  uncertaiQ  whether  we  used  'w'  in  our  manu- 
script of  this  example,  with  its  German  or  English  power,  and  two  grammars  leave  the  question  unsettled. 
JVaai  (handsome)=frflj;  Mi«(out)=8Jt;  mi7(ow1)=b31;  Ami (whey)=h8j ;  Aomjo  (aout)=ho"v;  Aooi(hay)=hoj. 
The  Belgian  ut  we  have  heard  iu  English;  and  in  Swedish,  nej  (nay)=:nEJ. 

§  Feminine  plural,  se'oro.  •  ,,,v    ; 

II  Accusative  singular,  a^tu',. 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


141 


6(51. 

662. 

663. 

664. 

665. 

Suahian. 

Suabian. 

Pennsylvania. 

Rtutian. 

Ilfyrlan. 

(Schwartzwald.) 

(Hohenzol.  Hecb.) 

^  6.9S  * 

'  0,9 

^  ens,  e,ns 

.     Udi'n 

*  Je'dan 

Ms'boa         ,,^ 

'^  ts'boa 

2  ts'be 

=*dEa 

^  di.5",  dia 

"  trill,  tri 

Hru 

"•  trAJ 

"  tri 

Hri 

*  fira,  fire 

*riri 

*fir 

*  tretire 

'  tre'tri,  tretirl 

»fAJ.f,.a"       " 

^  ftvjXi           :. 

'  ftnf 

'  PJ^tJ 

*  pet,  pst' 

®  se'csd,  7  siba 

®  se'csi            ip. 

"  sees 

«  ttStj 

*  fSSt 

^  si'bana,  -e 

^  si'bani,         .  , 

^  St  ba 

^  sj'em 

^  se'dam 

«axta 

'ta:ti 

"  5ct 

*  Lo'sjem 

*  o'sam   • 

'  nAJne 

®  nAJni 

"  nAJn 

'•d36EJat3 

» de'ift 

"  tsene . 

"tseni. 

"  tsea. 

"dj^sjatj. 

^0  de'sef. 

666. 

667. 

668. 

669. 

670. 

Dalmatian. 

French. 

Savoy. 

Savoy. 

at  Sion. 

^  Je'dan 

1  b; 

^0. 

^  u"n,  y"n 

'o. 

'^  dta 

'^  du  ««o. 

"^du 

''du 

«du 

Um 

•'' trvA" 

^  tre,  tra 

Mrej 

nre 

*  tfe'tM 

♦cA-fr 

*  CA-'t 

♦  catro 

*  catro 

'P^t.       ;; 

'si;c            ;^- 

"fA: 

"^sl.rc 

"Bl, 

"  res             T: 

"sis            ''." 

"fi 

"  sejs 

«  BIS 

^  se'dam 

'  set'  (set') 

^  SA- 

^  ret' 

^sat' 

®  osam 

'  y"i*t 

*  VI 

«  Vlt 

»vtt 

»  d^LSt 

"nn^fsisi. 

» nA" 

®  nu 

"nu 

^"  de'ssi^t. 

^»dls. 

"  dA". 

^°dis.' 

»°  dj». 

"'Compare  Allomanic  (Bodensee,  Aarau,)  hast,  hat;  tuaB,/oot;  iiaga,  to  fly ;  liiags,  to  look ;  liiogt,  looked ; 
i'bal,  evil. 


19 


142 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


671. 

672. 

678. 

674. 

675. 

Ll/OHS. 

MarwUla. 

Narbonne. 

Beamats, 

Spanish. 

(Provensal.) 

(of  Pau.) 

U-      '      -:»:■■-     -■'  r*'  ^ 

'jon 

-    MafjJu/" 

» yn,  yon 

^y-n 

^  uno 

'^du 

'^  dos,  dus 

« dus 

''dy-8 

*d6s 

'  trAJ 

8  tres 

'tres 

"tres 

, 

Hres,  tres 

*  catro 

*catr6 

*catre 

*  cv^tre 

*  cv&,tro 

Maj 

*  BiA;,  eef 

*  sie/c         ;    i. 

'fife 

■  ;  '.i.. 

»7i/co            ■ 

"  SAl 

«8ie 

«  sles 

"rej 

■  '  - 

*sej8              ^ 

'SA 

■       '  set,  BE 

'  sU 

^8€t 

■:     ■.■'; 

^slite        .  >   ^ 

"vr 

''j/e,.lUs' 

«  bejt 

'  vejt 

"otfo 

®  nH 

*  nav,  no 

•  nov 

•na'v 

®  nuite,  nue'te 

''  dJH". 

*°  dis's,  dss. 

"dets,  "dutse. 

"dEts. 

"  dl£7. 

676. 

677. 

678. 

679. 

680.      ' 

Catalonia  n. 

Portuguese. 

Wallachian. 

Armenian, 

(^rnteniau.) 

^  un 

^  u,m 

^  iinu 

*  DlfiG 

^mi 

^  dos 

'^  diief 

^ddj 

2jer,GU' 

'^jirGu- 

=»  tres  • 

» tr^f 

Mrej              ]-\l 

'  jeriic 

"  Jirec 

*  cv^trs 

*  cvAtr5 

*p^tru 

*  tfu5rs, 

tfvors 

*  tiO^'rs     ^^      , 

"*  ri/cve 

^siTco 

Mrintf 

^hlfc 

■    =  'l  .  ■   ..     . 

'hi-nc         .., 

«SIS 

"  ssjp 

"rSse                ,^ 

"  'bJets, 

^ets 

"Lets      ■  '      !. 

^  set 

^  ssts 

'fs'pt}?       A 

^  jotan, 

-tn 

^Jotn          ,, , 

«  bujt 

«  vit6 

:.     '^P*^       ^       r^ 

*  iitan,  ■ 

tn  ,,^ 

'  ut,  utn 

®  noT 

«  n  ote 

*  nove 

»inan 

-.•:' 

»inan 

^»  de'V. 

'°dSf. 

"  d&sn. 

"dYsn. 

*  "  iiDBprssetf  £,  where  spr  is  for  iii^er. 


'^■'r-V_;-*  * 


tJ 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


wm 


681. 
Turkish. 

Mr 
ici 

'y-tf 
'  dairt 
'  ber 


Hunffarinn. 
I  edj"         - 
''  cetta' 
'  harom,  o? 
*  ned}" 
■^Ht 


683. 

Albanian. 

df 
tre" 
catr 


684. 
Ellen 


If. 


685. 
Arab 


lie. 


'  VAhfit, — d. 
^  i?nAJn 

'  7A''lA"/A't 

*  Umrix,  tissni      *  A^rbA^H 
"  'qA'msit  t 


S  na 
aio 
'  trill 


pe 


nds 


« alto' 
^jedi 

'  Bfcls 

«hot           * 

'hejt 

*  n Jolts 

« djart* 
^ftat* 

»t€t 

®  icse,  ecsl 
^  epta 
'      '  octo,  octo,  oeto 

« sIttAt 

^  SA'bAt 

"  7AmA'nJAt,*$ 

'  ■    'CVB        .' 

"cilfints       *' 

"  nand' 

'  en  a  a,  enja 

» tisrt 

"  tl9. 

'» act. 

'       "as^ca.     '■' 

>»  A'rrA-t. 

< 

686. 
Chaldee. 

'  haa 

**  tren           ~ 

687. 
(Striae. 

^hao          • 
2  trm           ^ 

688. 
Coptic* 

'^  sn^'v 

689. 
Welsh. 
^  un,  in. 
'          ^  d&j 

690. 
Irish. 

^  heBn 
^do 

Mla7a 

*  arba             ' 

8tl67o 
*arb{)      ^ 

*  f  emt 
*ft6u         • 

*  pidvur 

Hri 
*  ci'hi^r 

< 

'  hamra 

'  hamrS 

» tiu 

'  pimp 

*  cuiG,  cud} 

"I'fta 

'  faua             - 

^  tmanJa 

«ift6 
^rkuo 
'  tmatijo 

**  sou 

^  re  fit     - 

*  rmin 

« "vvecj    ' 
V     •     8vt7         ■  V-' 

"re 
^fftct 
"  bc^t 

« tira 
^»  a'sra. 

« tt'fS 

Vpsit       te 
">  mst. 

'  nAV 
10  deG. 

®  ne 
^»ds. 

J-'      *  This  <f '  is  between  »  and  sA.  f  **'  between  a,  s.  X  Vulg.  ^amAnJt.  v 

*  Memphitio  (Jacobite,)  pronounced  by  one  having  an  Arabic  vernacular.     The  fern,  form  of '  is  u vT,  of '  snbti 

(or  d,)  and  of »  psitt. 

t  In  our  MS.  this  c  has  the  note  "  towards  a  m/at,"  which,  if  correct,  will  locate  it  between  these  sounds,  and 

close  the  blank  under  a  in  §  369. 

J:  An  initial  'c  is  lost  here. 


— -\ 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGBAPHT. 


691. 

692. 

693. 

(/V«i'a».*) 

Coordinh. 

Gudzhrdt'hi. 

» jec 

*  JCC 

^ec't 

'  dy- 

"  du-du' 

«hf 

'81 

"  SlSi,  I? 

» tBn 

*  trahar,  trar 

Mfar 

Mfar,     ,. 

*  pentf 

'  pendj 

'  pantf 

»  f  .f 

'Kf          .       -, 

« tre" 

'  hsft 

^.^aft 

^sat' 

«  heft 

"Jaht       ., 

«ath 

'T^yx 

»nah 

'  nBL,  nBVL 

^^dejc. 

"  dah. 

'«  dBS. 

696. 

697.              t 

698. 

Tamil. 

Cherokee. 

CreeJe. 

^  VB'nB, 

^ SUCVO                 t 

^  he'mcin    ^ 

^  rindu 

Mail'      :,    .^ 

^hocolin 

*  mone^ 

Msni/        .,    . 

'  tutsinin 

*  nh\y*  y? 

*  nB,  ci' 

*  ostin 

*  andji 

'  hisci' 

*  tsa^cipin 

"^ru- 

®  sutali' 

''pltcin 

'Jiry-* 

^  Cb'  LCVOCl' 

'  oulap^cin 

»  jity-* 

'  tsuns-le'     :.}j 

*  tf  tnapkcin 

®  vbnbeay"* 

» 85nelB' 

®  ustapkcm 

'«  paty'* 

^0  scnhi' 

^«  pMin 

*  From  the  dictation  of  an  Armenian,     f  t  towards  i 

694. 
'  Ilindmfani. 

^  du,  do 

ntn 

*  trar 
^  pa,tf 
^  tfhovj  , 
^  sat 
«at 
»  no'vj 
''  dBS. 


Choctaw. 
UfB^ft' 

*tuclu'      . 

*  tutrlnB' 

*  Ufto         I 
» tB""Llapi' 
«  hB-nalt' 

'  u.tuclu'  <^^ 

*  u,tutfe*na 
» tfB^caii' 
"  pucoli' 


(3) 


695. 
Bengali, 
(Calcutta.) 
^  ec' 

'do^r 

'  tin 
Hf^rl 

»p^.tr         j    . 
"  tm'e  §      ' 
^  sat 
« ath 
®  nn^e  § 
^«  dor. 

V-.i 

700. 
Iroquois.  . ; 

*  b'scb  ..  > 
^  ticin 

^  hahsB 

*  cajeli 

*  uiscli  (c'h) 
«j^jBch(c'h) 

^  tS^tB  , 

*  satecu.         * 
»j6hto. 

"  ujeli  «**'> 


II  This  ,v  seeius  to  He  between  y  and  u. 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPnY. 


701. 
Wyandot. 

*  SCBt 

2  tendt' 
'  ff/hc 

*  ndb;fc 
'  uvi'i 

*  uva-j 

'  tsut&xe  >  " 

10  asi.h,  8£,h 


702. 

Comanche, 

^  simmus  ^ 

«  vha  " 

'^  puha^t'  ^ 

*  vb'^tsuzt  * 

<*  manuchf  (c'h)    » 
•^  n^"vazt'  « 

'  tatsuzf  ^ 

'  na  bev5;ft8U;ft'  <*>  * 
"  si'.vbnBvubnut'  ' 
^°  si- v&nnhut'        ^^ 


703. 
Niulaco. 
vi'stsi 
bith  (fh) 
daha'v 
dj6ve 
desecat' 
dafci 
bi'sich 
da'vssc 
ivesec' 
bmaJB 


704. 

Waco. 

^  tfe'&3 

^  Vltf 

'  ta-v 

*  tacvitf 
'*iscveto«*»"> 

*  ciahio 

'  ciua^vitr 
■^  ciata'vh  <""^ 
'  tsiesci'nte 

^°  ClTlOVbbbD 


705. 
Lenapr. 

^  cvu'ti 

*  nim 

'  nu'/u' 

*  nAva 

*  pAlenB;^  c 

*  cvB'tar 
'  nirar 

°  percu'/c' 
>»  telon 


705  a. 
(^Lenape.*) 

ngutti 

niscba 

nacba 

newo 

palenach 

guttasch 

niscbasch 

chasch 

pescbkonk 

tellen 


706. 
Chippeway. 

*  psji'G,  byiG 

'  nisvi' 

*  nivi'n 

*  iia,nB/n 

®  ifGodvnsvi' 
^  nijvasvi'f 
'  nirvnsvi'f 
®  rb'vGBsvi',  jrt)  r 
^°  mitasvi' 


707. 
Peiwbacol. 

*  pesBc 
'^  nif 

^  nabs 
*jeuh 

*  palenBscTT 
'  nec'vdB's 

^  tBmb5.,v,BS 

*  nsa.sBC 
®  nolivi 
i^mdala 


708. 
(^Pas.iamaquo(hIi/,)X 

'  niCBt 
'^  tabu 

'  818 

*ui6 
'  nnn 
°  ca"mat8 
^  iloiGB'tlBC 

*  oGme'ltfe 

*  e8cv6n5,d£C 
"  tilsn 


709. 
Poleicutemi. 

^  ngot 
^  nif 
''  nsvt 

*  nje  o 

^  nrtrnun 
"  nGotvti'tso 
^  novu'c 

*  SVlVt80 
9 


10 


raca 
mBt^'tso. 


*  This  is  Zeisbergcr's  version,  taken  in  Pennsylvania  in  the  last  century;  ours  is  from  a  resident  of  Texas. 
Zeisberger  did  not  recognise  the  vowels  of  up,  at,  like  lose  who  first  wrote  English  (§585,  587,)  and  when  the 
Dclawares  have  their  men  of  letters,  these  may  imitate  the  English  orthoepists,  by  assuming  that  Zeisberger's 
spelling  was  strictly  phonetic,  and  that  it  ought  to  influence  modern  speech. 

f  This  resemblance  is  unusual.  Baraga  gives  Kven  in  Ghippeway  as  nijwatuwi,  and  eight  as  nishwatswi.  Keat- 
ing, in  Long's  Expedition,  1824,  (whose  vowels  we  transliterate,)  gives  seven  ninjuassoe,  (he  knew  the  French 
nasals,  so  that  n  represents  our  nasal  sign,)  and  eight  nishwassu.  Six  is  formed  on  one,  (Lenkpe,  &c.,)  ««t;ett  on 
ftro,  and  e>V7A<  on  <Aree,  with  perhaps  over  or  6eyonc/,  in  respect  to  ^ve. 

I  Dictated  by  a  Penobscot.     In  Sake wi  or  sank,  one  is  stated  to  be 'nckotc' 


146 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOORAPIir. 


710. 
(^Shawanee.) 

1  ni'coti 
^  ni'svi 
"nVvi 

*  nie'vi 

^  nitlia.nvi 
°  nicotvn  7vi 
^  nisvi"7vi 

*  n7vii'*sic7vi 
®  tfac5,-t7vi 
^°  mBt^"7vi. 


711. 
Kama. 

*  miictee 
■^  no'ba 

"  din  bh 

*  to'ba 

®  papa, 
^  peomu 
'  peii'bli 
"  ra,  C8 
^°  cedeble. 


712. 
(^Osage.*) 

^  miTtf 
^  nombS,    ,. 
8  m-bri 

*  to-ba 

"  8^-ta 

'  th-pe 

''  p6"6mpvb,  omp 

*  ci^ato'ba 

®  cere'brotf«  Tcje 

"  cerebro. 


713. 
(^Enkimo.-f) 

*  artlic 
'^  marluc 
'^  pirasut 

*  siscmut 
'tetlemit 

*  afenic-marluc  ^^^  * 
!i^  afonic-pi/asut^^' ' 

'  afenic-slBinut  ^*^  * 
'  colialut  .  ' 
''  colit.  ^o 


714. 

{Cape  Flattery.^) 

or 

acl 
ve 
boh 

fUtS 

tse-fipacl 

aclp^ 

aclisob 

sacSaseb** 

kla^. 


715. 
{Apdchi.%) 
'  table 
^  daci 
mhe 
*ti 

^  tlstla 
"  ka'stan 
^  ka'stsidi 
*  sapi 
"  gosttij 
"  kanisna.! 


710. 

*  sin 

*  havB'q' 
^  Zamoq 

*  trpnp 

*  sera'p 

®  /fiamahoq' 
^  pakltj 

*  trpoq' 
®  mm;tl 
^«  rafoq'. 


mm;tam6q' 


717. 
I^Yuma.^) 
^  sintic 
^  'fiavic 
'  'ftamoq 
*  triumptlpq' 
"  sa'rtipt' 
®  'fiome'^oq' 
^  ptlfciiq* 
»8lp6q* 
"  '^am'fiaaioq' 
"  eafoq'. 


718. 
(Chinook.W) 
'  ibt 

^  ma'vcst 
^  q  |4lon  (isw.) 

*  lA-'CBt  (i?) 

®  q(.qinem 

®  t&'cBm 

^  si'nBmmavc8t(V)  ^  tsA^t' 

*  stoctcm  *  pAt' 
®  cv^jits  "  ca'v 

1"  tbclIlBm.  "  OBp^  m- 


719. 

^  Jflt'  (S564) 

'  SA'in 
*  Sf 

«  Ibc' 


*  Properly  Tsskfi,  here  nt'ne  means  ten-less-one,  tr  being  a  contractioD  of  one,  and  iroji^ess.  So  in  the 
Mporove  of  West  Africa,  (as  we  have  been  informed  by  a  French  traveller,)  ten  is  ianm,  and  nine  is  intt^aumca 
not  ten.         **  An  accented  c. 

f  Of  Smith's  Sound;  dictated  by  Dr.  Hayes,  of  Kane's  Expedition.  These  differ  somewhat  from  those  given 
in  Sir  John  Richardson's  "Arctic  Searching  Expedition." 

I "  tlatsiB'ta;  «  dikl-o'ta;  "  t|.hBS-B'ta.         ||  Dictated  by  Dr.  J.  K.  Townsend. 

§  From  the  dictation  of  Dr.  John  L.  Le  Conte,  who  is  more  than  usually  accurate  in  observations  of  this  kind. 

^  Of  Canton  (cvt>titto/o,)  the  second  in  the  dialect  of  Macao,  where  the  abrupt  t  may  not  have  been  observed 
except  in  the  one  case.  But  in  our  notes,  the  breath  is  indicated  as  escaping  in  the  word  for  six.  In  the  Canton 
word  tor /our,  we  marked  the  vowel  as  made  with  the  jaw  open  and  the  lips  close,  which  would  indicate  a  kind  of 
French  u  based  on  the  vowel  of  it.  In  this  notation  we  used  a  sign  like  ^-^  for  lips  open;  ^-^  lips  close;  i—>jaw 
open;  i—ijato  close;  tj  lips  closed  and  jaw  open,  &c. 


ANALYTIC  ORTHOGRAPUY. 


147 


720. 
Chinese. 


1  JAt 
'^JI 

'  SA"m 
*  sr 
»m 
'luc 

»  tf  At' 
"pAt 


10 


CJA-=V 
SAp. 


721. 

722 

Jtfa%.t 

(//atcojV 

^s^tu 

'  acahl 

^  diivS 

'^  ariia 

Miga 

'  acoru 

*  ampad 

*  abil 

» lima  = 

»  arima 

^  anam 

"  a6n6 

^lujut 

^aoto 

»dmpan  " 

«  avD'ru 

"  ssmbilam 

"aiEa 

1°  sablas. 

'» umi. 

723. 

724. 

Tonga-X 

» taha 

Grebo. 
(W.  Africa.) 

»d6 

'  iia 

^sn. 

Molu 

Ma. 

*ia 

*hi. 

*  nlma 

*  m,  Am 

"onS 

*rali.d6(5.J) 

'fita 

'  ml38&.'(5.2) 

»Ealu 

«  b6hX.bchX. 

*                              *                  * 

« hiEa 

"  sigdo 

"  hofOfulu. 

"  pu^ 

t  From  the  dictation  of  a  Hollander  speaking  the  language. 

X  In  Wallis  I.  the  same,  except  i  tkht,  2  liiii j  in  F&tuna,  the  same,  except  >  ta«t,  ^  lu^, » limi, » Jvi, '»  ckuoiofnin. 


1^ 


ANALYTIC  OKTUOGRAPUY. 


CORRECTIONS  AND  ADDITIONS. 


§  181a.  In  some  languages,  j'i,  id,  eg,  are  used  indi£ferently,  and  as  we  employ  (' ')  for 
sonant  and  surd,  it  may  be  necessary  to  have  a  p,  t,  c,  /,  or  surmounted  by  (^)  to 
indicate  this  indifference.  In  Baraga's  Otchipwe  Dictionary,  it  is  directed  that  words  not 
found  under  p,  t,  k,  are  to  be  looked  for  under  b,  d,  g,.  and  the  reverse. 

§ 369,  above  €  Suab., 'c  Coptic' may  be  inserted.  -,      .^. 

§  624,  12th  word,  the  vowel  after  lis  not  nasal  (as  marked)  but  whispered. 

§  379,  note.  At  Covent  Garden  Theatre  we  heard  pass,  glass,  man,  with  the  vowel  of 
fat  lengthened,  and  passed,  flaunt,  can't.  Mr.  Kean,  at  the  Princesses'  Theatre,  used 
the  vowel  of  fat  in  France. 

Whilst  the  foregoing  pages  show  the  extent  to  which  the  Latin  and  Greek  alphabets 
may  be  used,  they  exhibit  at  the  same  time  a  number  of  undesirable  forms,  which  may 
be  avoided  by  selections  from  the  various  types  (whether  in  use  or  rejected,)  published 
in  Mr.  Isaac  Pitman's  Phonetic  Journal,  at  Bath,  England.  The  rejected  letters  amount 
to  110,  of  which  about  one-half  are  capitals.  All  of  these  are  accessible  in  long  primer, 
and  most  of  them  are  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  Roman  alphabet.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  letters  of  American  origin  are  in  the  aggregate  badly  formed,  and  cut  without 
taste  or  skill.  The  fact  that  our  own  illustrations  have  been  taken  from  about  seventy 
languages  or  dialects— of  which  a  somewhat  minute  notation  has  been  made — renders 
it  obvious  that  the  alphabet  of  any  single  language  must  require  a  much  less  complicated 
symbolisation. 


■•'4*fe^^'f; 


